Currently Active Record can be configured via the environment variable `DATABASE_URL` or by manually injecting a hash of values which is what Rails does, reading in `database.yml` and setting Active Record appropriately. Active Record expects to be able to use `DATABASE_URL` without the use of Rails, and we cannot rip out this functionality without deprecating. This presents a problem though when both config is set, and a `DATABASE_URL` is present. Currently the `DATABASE_URL` should "win" and none of the values in `database.yml` are used. This is somewhat unexpected to me if I were to set values such as `pool` in the `production:` group of `database.yml` they are ignored.

There are many ways that active record initiates a connection today:

- Stand Alone (without rails)
  - `rake db:<tasks>`
  - ActiveRecord.establish_connection
 
- With Rails
  - `rake db:<tasks>`
  - `rails <server> | <console>`
  - `rails dbconsole`


We should make all of these behave exactly the same way. The best way to do this is to put all of this logic in one place so it is guaranteed to be used.

Here is my prosed matrix of how this behavior should work:

```
No database.yml
No DATABASE_URL
=> Error
```

```
database.yml present
No DATABASE_URL
=> Use database.yml configuration
```

```
No database.yml
DATABASE_URL present
=> use DATABASE_URL configuration
```

```
database.yml present
DATABASE_URL present
=> Merged into `url` sub key. If both specify `url` sub key, the `database.yml` `url`
   sub key "wins". If other paramaters `adapter` or `database` are specified in YAML,
   they are discarded as the `url` sub key "wins".
```

### Implementation

Current implementation uses `ActiveRecord::Base.configurations` to resolve and merge all connection information before returning. This is achieved through a utility class: `ActiveRecord::ConnectionHandling::MergeAndResolveDefaultUrlConfig`.

To understand the exact behavior of this class, it is best to review the behavior in activerecord/test/cases/connection_adapters/connection_handler_test.rb though it should match the above proposal.

This reverts commit 026d0555.

Conflicts:
	activerecord/lib/active_record/fixtures.rb

Fixes #13383

  - Earlier, change_table was creating database-agnostic object.
  - After this change, it will create correct object based on current
    database adapter.
  - This will ensure that create_table and change_table will get same objects.
  - This makes update_table_definition method public and nodoc.
  - Fixes #13577 and #13503

Currently a developer can pass in a YAML configuration that fully specifies connection information:

```
production:
  database: triage_production
  adapter: password
  pool: 5
```

They can also pass in a string that specifies a connection URL directly to an environment key:

```
production: postgresql://localhost/foo
```

This PR allows the use of both a connection url and specifying connection attributes via YAML through the use of the "url" sub key:

```
production:
  url: postgresql://localhost/foo
  pool: 3
```

This will allow developers to inherit Active Record options such as `pool` from `&defaults` and still use a secure connection url such as `<%= ENV['DATABASE_URL'] %>`. The URL is expanded into a hash and then merged back into the YAML hash. If there are any conflicts, the values from the connection URL are preferred. 

Talked this over with @josevalim

Document the internal interfaces of `ConnectionSpecification::Resolver`

Change method name from `config` to `env` to better match the most common use case.

Building on the work of #13427 this PR adds a helpful error message to the adapters: mysql, mysql2, and sqlite3

This commit also cleans up the rake tasks that were checking
for DATABASE_URL in different places.

In fact, it would be nice to deprecate DATABASE_URL usage in the long
term, considering the direction we are moving of allowing those in .yml
files.

The code uses these checks in several places to know what to do with a
particular column, for instance AR attribute query methods has a branch
like this:

    if column.number?
      !value.zero?
    end

This should never be true for array columns, since it would be the same
as running [].zero?, which results in a NoMethodError exception.

Fixing this by ensuring that array columns in PostgreSQL never return
true for number?/text? checks.

Since most of the array support was based on the postgres_ext lib, it's
worth noting it does the same thing for numeric array columns too:

https://github.com/dockyard/postgres_ext/blob/v1.0.0/lib/postgres_ext/active_record/connection_adapters/postgres_adapter.rb#L72

This extended the same logic for text columns to ensure consistency.

Currently if you attempt to use a database that does not exist  you get an error:

```
PG::ConnectionBad FATAL:  database "db_error" does not exist
```

The solution is easy, create and migrate your database however new developers may not know these commands by memory. Instead of requiring the developer to search for a solution, tell them how to fix the problem in the error message:

```
ActiveRecord::NoDatabase: FATAL:  database "db_error" does not exist
Run `$ bin/rake db:create db:migrate` to create your database
```

Active Record should not know about `rake db:migrate` so this additional information needs to come from the railtie. Potential alternative implementation suggestions are welcome.

Closes #13444

Need to check if valud also respond_to :id before calling it, otherwise
things could explode.

Previously, executing an insert SQL in PostgreSQL with a command like this:

    insert into articles(
      number)
    values(
      5152
    )

would not work because the adapter was unable to extract the correct articles table name.

Blast from the past, MySQL 4 era, when the password hashing style changed.

also override drop_table in AbstractMySQLAdapter to properly drop
temporary tables without committing the transaction

This will fix the [broken
test](https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/4a2650836680f51490e999c3c8441a2f9adff96e)
 `test_with_limiting_with_custom_select`.

The query's result was built in a hash with column name as key, if the
result have a duplicated column name the last value was
overriding the first one.

Since MySQL 5.7.3 m13 does now allow primary key column is null.

Closes #13146.

This fixes an error when using:

```
change_colum :table, :column, :bigint, array: true
```

This commit takes into account the last cache_enabled value, before clearing query_cache.

This method is not using the block variable directly since it is calling
yield

also clarify native rename_index support is >= 5.7, not > 5.7

This prevents the following error when a MySQL index on a foreign key
column is renamed:

```
ActiveRecord::StatementInvalid: Mysql2::Error: Cannot drop index 'index_engines_on_car_id': needed in a foreign key constraint: DROP INDEX `index_engines_on_car_id` ON `engines`
```

refs: #13038.