Since Rails 4.0, we add an ORDER BY in the `first` method to ensure consistent
results among different database engines. But for singular associations this
behavior is not needed since we will have one record to return. As this
ORDER BY option can lead some performance issues we are removing it for singular
associations accessors.

Fixes #12623.

This fixes a bug where `select(:id)` combined with `joins()` raised:

```
ActiveRecord::StatementInvalid: SQLite3::SQLException: ambiguous column name: id:
SELECT  id, authors.author_address_id
FROM "posts"
INNER JOIN "authors"
ON "authors"."id" = "posts"."author_id"
ORDER BY posts.id LIMIT 3
```

The `select_values` are still String and Symbols because other parts (mainly calculations.rb)
rely on that fact.

/cc @tenderlove

Before this patch find_in_batches raises this error only on second iteration. So you will know about the problem only when you get the batch size threshold.

With the introduction of `#second` method and friends, we added an
offsets hash which replaced the @first variable, so removing it from the
reset method to avoid creating an unused variable now.

Introduced in bc625080.

This variable is internal and should not be exposed to end users

This commit bring the famous ordinal Array instance methods defined
in ActiveSupport into ActiveRecord as fully-fledged finders.

These finders ensure a default ascending order of the table's primary
key, and utilize the OFFSET SQL verb to locate the user's desired
record. If an offset is defined in the query, calling #second adds
to the offset to get the actual desired record.

Fixes #13743.

This fixes a regression (#13744) that was caused by 67d8bb96.

In 67d8bb96, we introduced lazy rollback for records, such that the
record's internal states and attributes are not restored immediately
after a transaction rollback, but deferred until they are first
accessed.

This optimization is only performed when the model does not have any
transactional callbacks (e.g. `after_commit` and `after_create`).

Unfortunately, the models used to test the affected codepaths all
comes with some sort of transactional callbacks. Therefore this
codepath remains largely untested until now and as a result there are
a few issues in the implementation that remains hidden until now.

First, the `sync_with_transaction_state` (or more accurately,
`update_attributes_from_transaction_state`) would perform the
synchronization prematurely before a transaction is finalized (i.e.
comitted or rolled back). As a result, when the actuall rollback
happens, the record will incorrectly assumes that its internal states
match the transaction state, and neglect to perform the restore.

Second, `update_attributes_from_transaction_state` calls `committed!`
in some cases. This in turns checks for the `destroyed?` state which
also requires synchronization with the transaction stae, which causes
an infnite recurrsion.

This fix works by deferring the synchronization until the transaction
has been finalized (addressing the first point), and also unrolled
the `committed!` and `rolledback!` logic in-place (addressing the
second point).

It should be noted that the primary purpose of the `committed!` and
`rolledback!` methods are to trigger the relevant transactional
callbacks. Since this code path is only entered when there are no
transactional callbacks on the model, this shouldn't be necessary. By
unrolling the method calls, the intention here (to restore the states
when necessary) becomes more clear.

This has been added 9 years ago in
a677da20, and removed 6 years ago in
38f8252e.

rather than allocating a new Relation, just make the AST directly

The `subclass_from_attrs` method is called even if the column specified by
the `inheritance_column` setting doesn't exist. This prevents setting associations
via the attributes hash if the association name clashes with the value of the setting,
typically `:type`. This worked previously in Rails 3.2.

Example:

    class Conversation < ActiveRecord::Base
      enum status: [ :active, :archived ]
    end

Before:

    Conversation::STATUS # => { "active" => 0, "archived" => 1 }

After:

    Conversation.statuses # => { "active" => 0, "archived" => 1 }

It's not public API, but is not private scoped.

Closes #13650, #13672

This is an alternate implementation to solve #13650. Currently form fields
contain the enum value (eg. "1"). This breaks because the setter `enum=`
expects the label (eg. "active").

ActiveRecord::Enum allows you to use labels in your application but store numbers.
We should make sure that all parts after AR are dealing with labels and not the
underlying mapping to a number.

This patch defines `_before_type_cast` on every enum column to return the label.
This method is later used to fetch the value to display in form fields.

I deliberately copied the implementation of the enum getter instead of delegating to it.
This allows you to overwrite the getter and for example return a `Value Object` but have it
still work for form fields.

Refs #13658

Currently Active Record can be configured via the environment variable `DATABASE_URL` or by manually injecting a hash of values which is what Rails does, reading in `database.yml` and setting Active Record appropriately. Active Record expects to be able to use `DATABASE_URL` without the use of Rails, and we cannot rip out this functionality without deprecating. This presents a problem though when both config is set, and a `DATABASE_URL` is present. Currently the `DATABASE_URL` should "win" and none of the values in `database.yml` are used. This is somewhat unexpected to me if I were to set values such as `pool` in the `production:` group of `database.yml` they are ignored.

There are many ways that active record initiates a connection today:

- Stand Alone (without rails)
  - `rake db:<tasks>`
  - ActiveRecord.establish_connection
 
- With Rails
  - `rake db:<tasks>`
  - `rails <server> | <console>`
  - `rails dbconsole`


We should make all of these behave exactly the same way. The best way to do this is to put all of this logic in one place so it is guaranteed to be used.

Here is my prosed matrix of how this behavior should work:

```
No database.yml
No DATABASE_URL
=> Error
```

```
database.yml present
No DATABASE_URL
=> Use database.yml configuration
```

```
No database.yml
DATABASE_URL present
=> use DATABASE_URL configuration
```

```
database.yml present
DATABASE_URL present
=> Merged into `url` sub key. If both specify `url` sub key, the `database.yml` `url`
   sub key "wins". If other paramaters `adapter` or `database` are specified in YAML,
   they are discarded as the `url` sub key "wins".
```

### Implementation

Current implementation uses `ActiveRecord::Base.configurations` to resolve and merge all connection information before returning. This is achieved through a utility class: `ActiveRecord::ConnectionHandling::MergeAndResolveDefaultUrlConfig`.

To understand the exact behavior of this class, it is best to review the behavior in activerecord/test/cases/connection_adapters/connection_handler_test.rb though it should match the above proposal.

This reverts commit 026d0555.

Conflicts:
	activerecord/lib/active_record/fixtures.rb

Fixes #13383

Closes #13623.

Closes #13625

  - Earlier, change_table was creating database-agnostic object.
  - After this change, it will create correct object based on current
    database adapter.
  - This will ensure that create_table and change_table will get same objects.
  - This makes update_table_definition method public and nodoc.
  - Fixes #13577 and #13503

Renaming the test accordingly to its behaviour

Adding 'Fixes' statement to changelog

Improving tests legibility & changelog

Undoing mistakenly removed empty line & further improving changelog