Any gems or libraries which do work with serialization or YAML will
ultimately need to compare these objects (albeit indirectly) to ensure
correctness. These will likely never get used internally (as they're
slow), but we should still expose them for others.

* before

```
people = Person.where(group: 'expert')
people.update(group: 'masters')

Note: Updating a large number of records will run a
UPDATE query for each record, which may cause a performance
issue. So if it is not needed to run callbacks for each update, it is
preferred to use <tt>update_all</tt> for updating all records using
a single query.
```

* after

```
people = Person.where(group: 'expert')
people.update(group: 'masters')
```
Note: Updating a large number of records will run an
UPDATE query for each record, which may cause a performance
issue. So if it is not needed to run callbacks for each update, it is
preferred to use <tt>update_all</tt> for updating all records using
a single query.

to reduce allocation of same object

For reads, we never need to construct this object. The double `defined?`
check is to avoid errors in tests

There were a few places where I missed a `create` vs `new`
before_type_cast check, and the semantics of `reload` became wrong.

We can skip the allocation of a full `AttributeSet` by changing the
semantics of how we structure things. Instead of comparing two separate
`AttributeSet` objects, and `Attribute` is now a singly linked list of
every change that has happened to it. Since the attribute objects are
immutable, to apply the changes we simply need to copy the head of the
list.

It's worth noting that this causes one subtle change in the behavior of
AR. When a record is saved successfully, the `before_type_cast` version
of everything will be what was sent to the database. I honestly think
these semantics make more sense, as we could have just as easily had the
DB do `RETURNING *` and updated the record with those if we had things
like timestamps implemented at the DB layer.

This brings our performance closer to 4.2, but we're still not quite
there.

`alias :migrations_path= :migrations_paths=`, so
`migrations_path = some_string` is correct.

I'm looking to move towards a tree-like structure for dirty checking
that involves an attribute holding onto the attribute that it was
created from. This means that `changed?` can be fully encapsulated on
that object. Since the objects are immutable, in `changes_applied`, we
can simply perform a shallow dup, instead of a deep one.

I'm not sure if that will actually end up in a performance boost, but
I'd like to semantically separate these concepts regardless

The external uses of this method have been removed, and I'd like to
internally re-use that name, as I'm planning to encapsulate `changed?`
into the attribute object itself.

`ActiveRecord::Associations::JoinDependency` now it’s own class` and `ActiveRecord::Associations::ThroughAssociationScope` doesn’t exists

`inverse_of` on through associations was accidently removed/caused to
stop working in commit f8d2899d which was part of a refactoring on
`ThroughReflection`.

To fix we moved `inverse_of` and `check_validity_of_inverse!` to the
`AbstractReflection` so it's available to the `ThroughReflection`
without having to dup any methods. We then need to delegate `inverse_name`
method in `ThroughReflection`. `inverse_name` can't be moved to
`AbstractReflection` without moving methods that set the instance
variable `@automatic_inverse_of`.

This adds a test that ensures that `inverse_of` on a `ThroughReflection`
returns the correct class name, and the correct record for the inverse
relationship.

Fixes #21692

* add % style prepared statement and string examples for
  `sanitize_sql_for_conditions`
* add array and string examples for `sanitize_sql_for_assignment`
* add examples for `sanitize_sql_like`
* add % style prepared statement example for `sanitize_sql_array`
* align spaces of exampl code

Fix `ActiveRecord::PredicateBuilder` docs. as `register_handler` no more ClassMethod, Since commit https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/a3936bbe21f4bff8247f890cacfd0fc882921003 [ci skip]

When a time object was assigned to a datetime column, the decorator for
TZ aware attributes wouldn't call super, so when using a database
without support for subsecond precision, the nanosecond would not be
truncated, leading to the value being marked as changed.

Interestingly, this also shows our new implementation of dirty checking
to be more robust than the old one (with less code and better
performance! 🎉!!!)

When I removed the call to `super` to avoid the setting of
`@previous_changes`, I forgot to duplicate the other part of that
behavior, which led to failing tests

The biggest source of the performance regression in these methods
occurred because dirty tracking required eagerly materializing and type
casting the assigned values. In the previous commits, I've changed dirty
tracking to perform the comparisons lazily. However, all of this is moot
when calling `save`, since `changes_applied` will be called, which just
ends up eagerly materializing everything, anyway. With the new mutation
tracker, it's easy to just compare the previous two hashes in the same
lazy fashion.

We will not have aliasing issues with this setup, which is proven by the
fact that we're able to detect nested mutation.

Before:
    User.create! 2.007k (± 7.1%) i/s -     10.098k

After:
    User.create! 2.557k (± 3.5%) i/s -     12.789k

Fixes #19859

In order to improve the performance of dirty checking, we're going to
need to duplicate all of the `previous_` methods in Active Model.
However, these methods are basically the same as their non-previous
counterparts, but comparing `@original_attributes` to
`@previous_original_attributes` instead of `@attributes` and
`@original_attributes`. This will help reduce that duplication.

This moves a bit more of the logic required for dirty checking into the
attribute objects. I had hoped to remove the `with_value_from_database`
stuff, but unfortunately just calling `dup` on the attribute objects
isn't enough, since the values might contain deeply nested data
structures. I think this can be cleaned up further.

This makes most dirty checking become lazy, and reduces the number of
object allocations and amount of CPU time when assigning a value. This
opens the door (but doesn't quite finish) to improving the performance
of writes to a place comparable to 4.1

It appears that as of version 4 the `db:test:prepare` task no longer depends on the `abort_if_pending_migrations` task, which leaves this comment out of sync.

Timestamp column can have less precision than ruby timestamp
In result in how big a fraction of a second can be stored in the
database.

  m = Model.create!
  m.created_at.usec == m.reload.created_at.usec
    # => false
    # due to different seconds precision in Time.now and database column

If the precision is low enough, (mysql default is 0, so it is always low
enough by default) the value changes when model is reloaded from the
database. This patch fixes that issue ensuring that any timestamp
assigned as an attribute is converted to column precision under the
attribute.

This removes the following warning.
```
activerecord/lib/active_record/relation/calculations.rb:74: warning: `&' interpreted as argument prefix
```

This argument was needen when `sanitize_sql_for_conditions` internally
called `sanitize_sql_hash_for_conditions`.
But `sanitize_sql_hash_for_conditions` was deprecated
(https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/eb921000a11bc87a3b001164fc367b84aee584c5)
and deleted
(https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/3a59dd212315ebb9bae8338b98af259ac00bbef3)
(https://github.com/rails/rails/commit/4bd089f1d93fa168b0ae17dd8c92a5157a2537d7).