In function cap_task_prctl(), we would allocate a credential
unconditionally and then check if we support the requested function.
If not we would release this credential with abort_creds() by using
RCU method. But on some archs such as powerpc, the sys_prctl is heavily
used to get/set the floating point exception mode. So the unnecessary
allocating/releasing of credential not only introduce runtime overhead
but also do cause OOM due to the RCU implementation.

This patch removes abort_creds() from cap_task_prctl() by calling
prepare_creds() only when we need to modify it.
Reported-by: NKevin Hao <haokexin@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: NTetsuo Handa <penguin-kernel@I-love.SAKURA.ne.jp>
Reviewed-by: NPaul Moore <paul@paul-moore.com>
Acked-by: NSerge E. Hallyn <serge.hallyn@ubuntu.com>
Reviewed-by: NKees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <james.l.morris@oracle.com>

We allow task A to change B's nice level if it has a supserset of
B's privileges, or of it has CAP_SYS_NICE.  Also allow it if A has
CAP_SYS_NICE with respect to B - meaning it is root in the same
namespace, or it created B's namespace.
Signed-off-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Reviewed-by: N"Eric W. Biederman" <ebiederm@xmission.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

As the capabilites and capability bounding set are per user namespace
properties it is safe to allow changing them with just CAP_SETPCAP
permission in the user namespace.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Tested-by: NRichard Weinberger <richard@nod.at>
Signed-off-by: N"Eric W. Biederman" <ebiederm@xmission.com>

very few users left...
Signed-off-by: NAl Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>

Andy Lutomirski pointed out that the current behavior of allowing the
owner of a user namespace to have all caps when that owner is not in a
parent user namespace is wrong.  Add a test to ensure the owner of a user
namespace is in the parent of the user namespace to fix this bug.

Thankfully this bug did not apply to the initial user namespace, keeping
the mischief that can be caused by this bug quite small.

This is bug was introduced in v3.5 by commit 783291e6
"Simplify the user_namespace by making userns->creator a kuid."
But did not matter until the permisions required to create
a user namespace were relaxed allowing a user namespace to be created
inside of a user namespace.

The bug made it possible for the owner of a user namespace to be
present in a child user namespace.  Since the owner of a user nameapce
is granted all capabilities it became possible for users in a
grandchild user namespace to have all privilges over their parent user
namspace.

Reorder the checks in cap_capable.  This should make the common case
faster and make it clear that nothing magic happens in the initial
user namespace.  The reordering is safe because cred->user_ns
can only be in targ_ns or targ_ns->parent but not both.

Add a comment a the top of the loop to make the logic of
the code clear.

Add a distinct variable ns that changes as we walk up
the user namespace hierarchy to make it clear which variable
is changing.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: N"Eric W. Biederman" <ebiederm@xmission.com>

... i.e. file-dependent and address-dependent checks.
Signed-off-by: NAl Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>

... switch callers.
Signed-off-by: NAl Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>

- Use uid_eq when comparing kuids
  Use gid_eq when comparing kgids
- Use make_kuid(user_ns, 0) to talk about the user_namespace root uid
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

cred.h and a few trivial users of struct cred are changed.  The rest of the users
of struct cred are left for other patches as there are too many changes to make
in one go and leave the change reviewable.  If the user namespace is disabled and
CONFIG_UIDGID_STRICT_TYPE_CHECKS are disabled the code will contiue to compile
and behave correctly.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

- Transform userns->creator from a user_struct reference to a simple
  kuid_t, kgid_t pair.

  In cap_capable this allows the check to see if we are the creator of
  a namespace to become the classic suser style euid permission check.

  This allows us to remove the need for a struct cred in the mapping
  functions and still be able to dispaly the user namespace creators
  uid and gid as 0.

- Remove the now unnecessary delayed_work in free_user_ns.

  All that is left for free_user_ns to do is to call kmem_cache_free
  and put_user_ns.  Those functions can be called in any context
  so call them directly from free_user_ns removing the need for delayed work.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

Add missing "personality.h"
security/commoncap.c: In function 'cap_bprm_set_creds':
security/commoncap.c:510: error: 'PER_CLEAR_ON_SETID' undeclared (first use in this function)
security/commoncap.c:510: error: (Each undeclared identifier is reported only once
security/commoncap.c:510: error: for each function it appears in.)
Signed-off-by: NJonghwan Choi <jhbird.choi@samsung.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <james.l.morris@oracle.com>

If a process increases permissions using fcaps all of the dangerous
personality flags which are cleared for suid apps should also be cleared.
Thus programs given priviledge with fcaps will continue to have address space
randomization enabled even if the parent tried to disable it to make it
easier to attack.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Reviewed-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <james.l.morris@oracle.com>

With this change, calling
  prctl(PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS, 1, 0, 0, 0)
disables privilege granting operations at execve-time.  For example, a
process will not be able to execute a setuid binary to change their uid
or gid if this bit is set.  The same is true for file capabilities.

Additionally, LSM_UNSAFE_NO_NEW_PRIVS is defined to ensure that
LSMs respect the requested behavior.

To determine if the NO_NEW_PRIVS bit is set, a task may call
  prctl(PR_GET_NO_NEW_PRIVS, 0, 0, 0, 0);
It returns 1 if set and 0 if it is not set. If any of the arguments are
non-zero, it will return -1 and set errno to -EINVAL.
(PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS behaves similarly.)

This functionality is desired for the proposed seccomp filter patch
series.  By using PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS, it allows a task to modify the
system call behavior for itself and its child tasks without being
able to impact the behavior of a more privileged task.

Another potential use is making certain privileged operations
unprivileged.  For example, chroot may be considered "safe" if it cannot
affect privileged tasks.

Note, this patch causes execve to fail when PR_SET_NO_NEW_PRIVS is
set and AppArmor is in use.  It is fixed in a subsequent patch.
Signed-off-by: NAndy Lutomirski <luto@amacapital.net>
Signed-off-by: NWill Drewry <wad@chromium.org>
Acked-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NKees Cook <keescook@chromium.org>

v18: updated change desc
v17: using new define values as per 3.4
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <james.l.morris@oracle.com>

I am about to remove the struct user_namespace reference from struct user_struct.
So keep an explicit track of the parent user namespace.

Take advantage of this new reference and replace instances of user_ns->creator->user_ns
with user_ns->parent.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

Optimize performance and prepare for the removal of the user_ns reference
from user_struct.  Remove the slow long walk through cred->user->user_ns and
instead go straight to cred->user_ns.
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>

Trim security.h
Signed-off-by: NAl Viro <viro@zeniv.linux.org.uk>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Once upon a time netlink was not sync and we had to get the effective
capabilities from the skb that was being received.  Today we instead get
the capabilities from the current task.  This has rendered the entire
purpose of the hook moot as it is now functionally equivalent to the
capable() call.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>

The capabilities framework is based around credentials, not necessarily the
current task.  Yet we still passed the current task down into LSMs from the
security_capable() LSM hook as if it was a meaningful portion of the security
decision.  This patch removes the 'generic' passing of current and instead
forces individual LSMs to use current explicitly if they think it is
appropriate.  In our case those LSMs are SELinux and AppArmor.

I believe the AppArmor use of current is incorrect, but that is wholely
unrelated to this patch.  This patch does not change what AppArmor does, it
just makes it clear in the AppArmor code that it is doing it.

The SELinux code still uses current in it's audit message, which may also be
wrong and needs further investigation.  Again this is NOT a change, it may
have always been wrong, this patch just makes it clear what is happening.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>

Initialize has_cap in cap_bprm_set_creds()
Reported-by: NAndrew G. Morgan <morgan@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

A task (when !SECURE_NOROOT) which executes a setuid-root binary will
obtain root privileges while executing that binary.  If the binary also
has effective capabilities set, then only those capabilities will be
granted.  The rationale is that the same binary can carry both setuid-root
and the minimal file capability set, so that on a filesystem not
supporting file caps the binary can still be executed with privilege,
while on a filesystem supporting file caps it will run with minimal
privilege.

This special case currently does NOT happen if there are file capabilities
but no effective capabilities.  Since capability-aware programs can very
well start with empty pE but populated pP and move those caps to pE when
needed.  In other words, if the file has file capabilities but NOT
effective capabilities, then we should do the same thing as if there
were file capabilities, and not grant full root privileges.

This patchset does that.

(Changelog by Serge Hallyn).
Signed-off-by: NZhi Li <lizhi1215@gmail.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

When the global init task is exec'd we have special case logic to make sure
the pE is not reduced.  There is no reason for this.  If init wants to drop
it's pE is should be allowed to do so.  Remove this special logic.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serge@hallyn.com>
Acked-by: NDavid Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NAndrew G. Morgan <morgan@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

ptrace is allowed to tasks in the same user namespace according to the
usual rules (i.e.  the same rules as for two tasks in the init user
namespace).  ptrace is also allowed to a user namespace to which the
current task the has CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability.

Changelog:
	Dec 31: Address feedback by Eric:
		. Correct ptrace uid check
		. Rename may_ptrace_ns to ptrace_capable
		. Also fix the cap_ptrace checks.
	Jan  1: Use const cred struct
	Jan 11: use task_ns_capable() in place of ptrace_capable().
	Feb 23: same_or_ancestore_user_ns() was not an appropriate
		check to constrain cap_issubset.  Rather, cap_issubset()
		only is meaningful when both capsets are in the same
		user_ns.
Signed-off-by: NSerge E. Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Cc: "Eric W. Biederman" <ebiederm@xmission.com>
Acked-by: NDaniel Lezcano <daniel.lezcano@free.fr>
Acked-by: NDavid Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Cc: James Morris <jmorris@namei.org>
Signed-off-by: NAndrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: NLinus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>

- Introduce ns_capable to test for a capability in a non-default
  user namespace.
- Teach cap_capable to handle capabilities in a non-default
  user namespace.

The motivation is to get to the unprivileged creation of new
namespaces.  It looks like this gets us 90% of the way there, with
only potential uid confusion issues left.

I still need to handle getting all caps after creation but otherwise I
think I have a good starter patch that achieves all of your goals.

Changelog:
	11/05/2010: [serge] add apparmor
	12/14/2010: [serge] fix capabilities to created user namespaces
	Without this, if user serge creates a user_ns, he won't have
	capabilities to the user_ns he created.  THis is because we
	were first checking whether his effective caps had the caps
	he needed and returning -EPERM if not, and THEN checking whether
	he was the creator.  Reverse those checks.
	12/16/2010: [serge] security_real_capable needs ns argument in !security case
	01/11/2011: [serge] add task_ns_capable helper
	01/11/2011: [serge] add nsown_capable() helper per Bastian Blank suggestion
	02/16/2011: [serge] fix a logic bug: the root user is always creator of
		    init_user_ns, but should not always have capabilities to
		    it!  Fix the check in cap_capable().
	02/21/2011: Add the required user_ns parameter to security_capable,
		    fixing a compile failure.
	02/23/2011: Convert some macros to functions as per akpm comments.  Some
		    couldn't be converted because we can't easily forward-declare
		    them (they are inline if !SECURITY, extern if SECURITY).  Add
		    a current_user_ns function so we can use it in capability.h
		    without #including cred.h.  Move all forward declarations
		    together to the top of the #ifdef __KERNEL__ section, and use
		    kernel-doc format.
	02/23/2011: Per dhowells, clean up comment in cap_capable().
	02/23/2011: Per akpm, remove unreachable 'return -EPERM' in cap_capable.

(Original written and signed off by Eric;  latest, modified version
acked by him)

[akpm@linux-foundation.org: fix build]
[akpm@linux-foundation.org: export current_user_ns() for ecryptfs]
[serge.hallyn@canonical.com: remove unneeded extra argument in selinux's task_has_capability]
Signed-off-by: NEric W. Biederman <ebiederm@xmission.com>
Signed-off-by: NSerge E. Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Acked-by: N"Eric W. Biederman" <ebiederm@xmission.com>
Acked-by: NDaniel Lezcano <daniel.lezcano@free.fr>
Acked-by: NDavid Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Cc: James Morris <jmorris@namei.org>
Signed-off-by: NSerge E. Hallyn <serge.hallyn@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NAndrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: NLinus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>

Netlink message processing in the kernel is synchronous these days,
capabilities can be checked directly in security_netlink_recv() from
the current process.
Signed-off-by: NPatrick McHardy <kaber@trash.net>
Reviewed-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>
[chrisw: update to include pohmelfs and uvesafb]
Signed-off-by: NChris Wright <chrisw@sous-sol.org>
Signed-off-by: NDavid S. Miller <davem@davemloft.net>

Both settimeofday() and clock_settime() promise with a 'const'
attribute not to alter the arguments passed in. This patch adds the
missing 'const' attribute into the various kernel functions
implementing these calls.
Signed-off-by: NRichard Cochran <richard.cochran@omicron.at>
Acked-by: NJohn Stultz <johnstul@us.ibm.com>
LKML-Reference: <20110201134417.545698637@linutronix.de>
Signed-off-by: NThomas Gleixner <tglx@linutronix.de>

The addition of CONFIG_SECURITY_DMESG_RESTRICT resulted in a build
failure when CONFIG_PRINTK=n.  This is because the capabilities code
which used the new option was built even though the variable in question
didn't exist.

The patch here fixes this by moving the capabilities checks out of the
LSM and into the caller.  All (known) LSMs should have been calling the
capabilities hook already so it actually makes the code organization
better to eliminate the hook altogether.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>
Signed-off-by: NLinus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>

The kernel syslog contains debugging information that is often useful
during exploitation of other vulnerabilities, such as kernel heap
addresses.  Rather than futilely attempt to sanitize hundreds (or
thousands) of printk statements and simultaneously cripple useful
debugging functionality, it is far simpler to create an option that
prevents unprivileged users from reading the syslog.

This patch, loosely based on grsecurity's GRKERNSEC_DMESG, creates the
dmesg_restrict sysctl.  When set to "0", the default, no restrictions are
enforced.  When set to "1", only users with CAP_SYS_ADMIN can read the
kernel syslog via dmesg(8) or other mechanisms.

[akpm@linux-foundation.org: explain the config option in kernel.txt]
Signed-off-by: NDan Rosenberg <drosenberg@vsecurity.com>
Acked-by: NIngo Molnar <mingo@elte.hu>
Acked-by: NEugene Teo <eugeneteo@kernel.org>
Acked-by: NKees Cook <kees.cook@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NAndrew Morton <akpm@linux-foundation.org>
Signed-off-by: NLinus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>

All security modules shouldn't change sched_param parameter of
security_task_setscheduler().  This is not only meaningless, but also
make a harmful result if caller pass a static variable.

This patch remove policy and sched_param parameter from
security_task_setscheduler() becuase none of security module is
using it.

Cc: James Morris <jmorris@namei.org>
Signed-off-by: NKOSAKI Motohiro <kosaki.motohiro@jp.fujitsu.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Make do_execve() take a const filename pointer so that kernel_execve() compiles
correctly on ARM:

arch/arm/kernel/sys_arm.c:88: warning: passing argument 1 of 'do_execve' discards qualifiers from pointer target type

This also requires the argv and envp arguments to be consted twice, once for
the pointer array and once for the strings the array points to.  This is
because do_execve() passes a pointer to the filename (now const) to
copy_strings_kernel().  A simpler alternative would be to cast the filename
pointer in do_execve() when it's passed to copy_strings_kernel().

do_execve() may not change any of the strings it is passed as part of the argv
or envp lists as they are some of them in .rodata, so marking these strings as
const should be fine.

Further kernel_execve() and sys_execve() need to be changed to match.

This has been test built on x86_64, frv, arm and mips.
Signed-off-by: NDavid Howells <dhowells@redhat.com>
Tested-by: NRalf Baechle <ralf@linux-mips.org>
Acked-by: NRussell King <rmk+kernel@arm.linux.org.uk>
Signed-off-by: NLinus Torvalds <torvalds@linux-foundation.org>

Whitespace coding style fixes.
Signed-off-by: NJustin P. Mattock <justinmattock@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

In the comment of cap_file_mmap(), replace mmap_min_addr to be dac_mmap_min_addr.
Signed-off-by: NZhitong Wang <zhitong.wangzt@alibaba-inc.com>
Acked-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Drop my typoed comment as it is both unhelpful and redundant.
Signed-off-by: NKees Cook <kees.cook@canonical.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Right now the syslog "type" action are just raw numbers which makes
the source difficult to follow.  This patch replaces the raw numbers
with defined constants for some level of sanity.
Signed-off-by: NKees Cook <kees.cook@canonical.com>
Acked-by: NJohn Johansen <john.johansen@canonical.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

This allows the LSM to distinguish between syslog functions originating
from /proc/kmsg access and direct syscalls.  By default, the commoncaps
will now no longer require CAP_SYS_ADMIN to read an opened /proc/kmsg
file descriptor.  For example the kernel syslog reader can now drop
privileges after opening /proc/kmsg, instead of staying privileged with
CAP_SYS_ADMIN.  MAC systems that implement security_syslog have unchanged
behavior.
Signed-off-by: NKees Cook <kees.cook@canonical.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Acked-by: NJohn Johansen <john.johansen@canonical.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

As far as I know, all distros currently ship kernels with default
CONFIG_SECURITY_FILE_CAPABILITIES=y.  Since having the option on
leaves a 'no_file_caps' option to boot without file capabilities,
the main reason to keep the option is that turning it off saves
you (on my s390x partition) 5k.  In particular, vmlinux sizes
came to:

without patch fscaps=n:		 	53598392
without patch fscaps=y:		 	53603406
with this patch applied:		53603342

with the security-next tree.

Against this we must weigh the fact that there is no simple way for
userspace to figure out whether file capabilities are supported,
while things like per-process securebits, capability bounding
sets, and adding bits to pI if CAP_SETPCAP is in pE are not supported
with SECURITY_FILE_CAPABILITIES=n, leaving a bit of a problem for
applications wanting to know whether they can use them and/or why
something failed.

It also adds another subtly different set of semantics which we must
maintain at the risk of severe security regressions.

So this patch removes the SECURITY_FILE_CAPABILITIES compile
option.  It drops the kernel size by about 50k over the stock
SECURITY_FILE_CAPABILITIES=y kernel, by removing the
cap_limit_ptraced_target() function.

Changelog:
	Nov 20: remove cap_limit_ptraced_target() as it's logic
		was ifndef'ed.
Signed-off-by: NSerge E. Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Acked-by: NAndrew G. Morgan" <morgan@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

    Remove the root_plug example LSM code.  It's unmaintained and
    increasingly broken in various ways.

    Made at the 2009 Kernel Summit in Tokyo!
Acked-by: NGreg Kroah-Hartman <gregkh@suse.de>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Currently SELinux enforcement of controls on the ability to map low memory
is determined by the mmap_min_addr tunable.  This patch causes SELinux to
ignore the tunable and instead use a seperate Kconfig option specific to how
much space the LSM should protect.

The tunable will now only control the need for CAP_SYS_RAWIO and SELinux
permissions will always protect the amount of low memory designated by
CONFIG_LSM_MMAP_MIN_ADDR.

This allows users who need to disable the mmap_min_addr controls (usual reason
being they run WINE as a non-root user) to do so and still have SELinux
controls preventing confined domains (like a web server) from being able to
map some area of low memory.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Currently we duplicate the mmap_min_addr test in cap_file_mmap and in
security_file_mmap if !CONFIG_SECURITY.  This patch moves cap_file_mmap
into commoncap.c and then calls that function directly from
security_file_mmap ifndef CONFIG_SECURITY like all of the other capability
checks are done.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Currently SELinux enforcement of controls on the ability to map low memory
is determined by the mmap_min_addr tunable.  This patch causes SELinux to
ignore the tunable and instead use a seperate Kconfig option specific to how
much space the LSM should protect.

The tunable will now only control the need for CAP_SYS_RAWIO and SELinux
permissions will always protect the amount of low memory designated by
CONFIG_LSM_MMAP_MIN_ADDR.

This allows users who need to disable the mmap_min_addr controls (usual reason
being they run WINE as a non-root user) to do so and still have SELinux
controls preventing confined domains (like a web server) from being able to
map some area of low memory.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>

Currently we duplicate the mmap_min_addr test in cap_file_mmap and in
security_file_mmap if !CONFIG_SECURITY.  This patch moves cap_file_mmap
into commoncap.c and then calls that function directly from
security_file_mmap ifndef CONFIG_SECURITY like all of the other capability
checks are done.
Signed-off-by: NEric Paris <eparis@redhat.com>
Acked-by: NSerge Hallyn <serue@us.ibm.com>
Signed-off-by: NJames Morris <jmorris@namei.org>