Rollup merge of #113715 - kadiwa4:lang_items_doc, r=JohnTitor

Unstable Book: update `lang_items` page and split it

[`lang_items` rendered](https://github.com/kadiwa4/rust/blob/lang_items_doc/src/doc/unstable-book/src/language-features/lang-items.md), [`start` rendered](https://github.com/kadiwa4/rust/blob/lang_items_doc/src/doc/unstable-book/src/language-features/start.md)
Closes #110274
Rustonomicon PR: rust-lang/nomicon#413, Rust Book PR: rust-lang/book#3705

A lot of information doesn't belong on the `lang_items` page. I added a separate page for the `start` feature and moved some text into the Rustonomicon because the `lang_items` page should not be a tutorial on how to build a `#![no_std]` executable.
The list of existing lang items is too long/unstable, so I removed it.

The doctests still don't work. :(

compiler/rustc_error_codes/src/error_codes/E0132.md

@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ It is not possible to declare type parameters on a function that has the `start`
 attribute. Such a function must have the following type signature (for more
 information, view [the unstable book][1]):
 
-[1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/language-features/lang-items.html#writing-an-executable-without-stdlib
+[1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/language-features/start.html
 
 ```
 # let _:

compiler/rustc_error_codes/src/error_codes/E0152.md

@@ -20,6 +20,6 @@ attributes:
 #![no_std]
 ```
 
-See also the [unstable book][1].
+See also [this section of the Rustonomicon][beneath std].
 
-[1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/language-features/lang-items.html#writing-an-executable-without-stdlib
+[beneath std]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/beneath-std.html

src/doc/unstable-book/src/language-features/lang-items.md

@@ -9,26 +9,60 @@ functionality that isn't hard-coded into the language, but is
 implemented in libraries, with a special marker to tell the compiler
 it exists. The marker is the attribute `#[lang = "..."]` and there are
 various different values of `...`, i.e. various different 'lang
-items'.
+items'. Most of them can only be defined once.
 
-For example, `Box` pointers require a lang item for allocation.
-A freestanding program that uses the `Box`
-sugar for dynamic allocations via `malloc` and `free`:
+Lang items are loaded lazily by the compiler; e.g. if one never uses `Box`
+then there is no need to define a function for `exchange_malloc`.
+`rustc` will emit an error when an item is needed but not found in the current
+crate or any that it depends on.
+
+Some features provided by lang items:
+
+- overloadable operators via traits: the traits corresponding to the
+  `==`, `<`, dereferencing (`*`) and `+` (etc.) operators are all
+  marked with lang items; those specific four are `eq`, `partial_ord`,
+  `deref`/`deref_mut`, and `add` respectively.
+- panicking: the `panic` and `panic_impl` lang items, among others.
+- stack unwinding: the lang item `eh_personality` is a function used by the
+  failure mechanisms of the compiler. This is often mapped to GCC's personality
+  function (see the [`std` implementation][personality] for more information),
+  but programs which don't trigger a panic can be assured that this function is
+  never called. Additionally, a `eh_catch_typeinfo` static is needed for certain
+  targets which implement Rust panics on top of C++ exceptions.
+- the traits in `core::marker` used to indicate types of
+  various kinds; e.g. lang items `sized`, `sync` and `copy`.
+- memory allocation, see below.
+
+Most lang items are defined by `core`, but if you're trying to build
+an executable without the `std` crate, you might run into the need
+for lang item definitions.
+
+[personality]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/library/std/src/personality/gcc.rs
+
+## Example: Implementing a `Box`
+
+`Box` pointers require two lang items: one for the type itself and one for
+allocation. A freestanding program that uses the `Box` sugar for dynamic
+allocations via `malloc` and `free`:
 
 ```rust,ignore (libc-is-finicky)
-#![feature(lang_items, start, libc, core_intrinsics, rustc_private, rustc_attrs)]
+#![feature(lang_items, start, core_intrinsics, rustc_private, panic_unwind, rustc_attrs)]
 #![allow(internal_features)]
 #![no_std]
+
+extern crate libc;
+extern crate unwind;
+
+use core::ffi::c_void;
 use core::intrinsics;
 use core::panic::PanicInfo;
 use core::ptr::NonNull;
 
-extern crate libc;
-
+pub struct Global; // the global allocator
 struct Unique<T>(NonNull<T>);
 
 #[lang = "owned_box"]
-pub struct Box<T>(Unique<T>);
+pub struct Box<T, A = Global>(Unique<T>, A);
 
 impl<T> Box<T> {
     pub fn new(x: T) -> Self {
@@ -37,24 +71,26 @@ impl<T> Box<T> {
     }
 }
 
+impl<T, A> Drop for Box<T, A> {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        unsafe {
+            libc::free(self.0.0.as_ptr() as *mut c_void);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[lang = "exchange_malloc"]
 unsafe fn allocate(size: usize, _align: usize) -> *mut u8 {
-    let p = libc::malloc(size as libc::size_t) as *mut u8;
+    let p = libc::malloc(size) as *mut u8;
 
     // Check if `malloc` failed:
-    if p as usize == 0 {
+    if p.is_null() {
         intrinsics::abort();
     }
 
     p
 }
 
-impl<T> Drop for Box<T> {
-    fn drop(&mut self) {
-      libc::free(self.0.0.0 as *mut libc::c_void)
-    }
-}
-
 #[start]
 fn main(_argc: isize, _argv: *const *const u8) -> isize {
     let _x = Box::new(1);
@@ -62,247 +98,18 @@ fn main(_argc: isize, _argv: *const *const u8) -> isize {
     0
 }
 
-#[lang = "eh_personality"] extern fn rust_eh_personality() {}
-#[lang = "panic_impl"] extern fn rust_begin_panic(_info: &PanicInfo) -> ! { intrinsics::abort() }
-#[no_mangle] pub extern fn rust_eh_register_frames () {}
-#[no_mangle] pub extern fn rust_eh_unregister_frames () {}
-```
-
-Note the use of `abort`: the `exchange_malloc` lang item is assumed to
-return a valid pointer, and so needs to do the check internally.
-
-Other features provided by lang items include:
-
-- overloadable operators via traits: the traits corresponding to the
-  `==`, `<`, dereferencing (`*`) and `+` (etc.) operators are all
-  marked with lang items; those specific four are `eq`, `ord`,
-  `deref`, and `add` respectively.
-- stack unwinding and general failure; the `eh_personality`,
-  `panic` and `panic_bounds_check` lang items.
-- the traits in `std::marker` used to indicate types of
-  various kinds; lang items `send`, `sync` and `copy`.
-- the marker types and variance indicators found in
-  `std::marker`; lang items `covariant_type`,
-  `contravariant_lifetime`, etc.
-
-Lang items are loaded lazily by the compiler; e.g. if one never uses
-`Box` then there is no need to define a function for `exchange_malloc`.
-`rustc` will emit an error when an item is needed
-but not found in the current crate or any that it depends on.
-
-Most lang items are defined by `libcore`, but if you're trying to build
-an executable without the standard library, you'll run into the need
-for lang items. The rest of this page focuses on this use-case, even though
-lang items are a bit broader than that.
-
-### Using libc
-
-In order to build a `#[no_std]` executable we will need libc as a dependency.
-We can specify this using our `Cargo.toml` file:
-
-```toml
-[dependencies]
-libc = { version = "0.2.14", default-features = false }
-```
-
-Note that the default features have been disabled. This is a critical step -
-**the default features of libc include the standard library and so must be
-disabled.**
-
-### Writing an executable without stdlib
-
-Controlling the entry point is possible in two ways: the `#[start]` attribute,
-or overriding the default shim for the C `main` function with your own.
-
-The function marked `#[start]` is passed the command line parameters
-in the same format as C:
-
-```rust,ignore (libc-is-finicky)
-#![feature(lang_items, core_intrinsics, rustc_private)]
-#![feature(start)]
-#![allow(internal_features)]
-#![no_std]
-use core::intrinsics;
-use core::panic::PanicInfo;
-
-// Pull in the system libc library for what crt0.o likely requires.
-extern crate libc;
-
-// Entry point for this program.
-#[start]
-fn start(_argc: isize, _argv: *const *const u8) -> isize {
-    0
-}
-
-// These functions are used by the compiler, but not
-// for a bare-bones hello world. These are normally
-// provided by libstd.
-#[lang = "eh_personality"]
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern fn rust_eh_personality() {
-}
-
-#[lang = "panic_impl"]
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern fn rust_begin_panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
-    unsafe { intrinsics::abort() }
-}
-```
-
-To override the compiler-inserted `main` shim, one has to disable it
-with `#![no_main]` and then create the appropriate symbol with the
-correct ABI and the correct name, which requires overriding the
-compiler's name mangling too:
-
-```rust,ignore (libc-is-finicky)
-#![feature(lang_items, core_intrinsics, rustc_private)]
-#![feature(start)]
-#![allow(internal_features)]
-#![no_std]
-#![no_main]
-use core::intrinsics;
-use core::panic::PanicInfo;
-
-// Pull in the system libc library for what crt0.o likely requires.
-extern crate libc;
-
-// Entry point for this program.
-#[no_mangle] // ensure that this symbol is called `main` in the output
-pub extern fn main(_argc: i32, _argv: *const *const u8) -> i32 {
-    0
-}
-
-// These functions are used by the compiler, but not
-// for a bare-bones hello world. These are normally
-// provided by libstd.
 #[lang = "eh_personality"]
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern fn rust_eh_personality() {
-}
+fn rust_eh_personality() {}
 
-#[lang = "panic_impl"]
-#[no_mangle]
-pub extern fn rust_begin_panic(info: &PanicInfo) -> ! {
-    unsafe { intrinsics::abort() }
-}
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic_handler(_info: &PanicInfo) -> ! { intrinsics::abort() }
 ```
 
-In many cases, you may need to manually link to the `compiler_builtins` crate
-when building a `no_std` binary. You may observe this via linker error messages
-such as "```undefined reference to `__rust_probestack'```".
-
-## More about the language items
-
-The compiler currently makes a few assumptions about symbols which are
-available in the executable to call. Normally these functions are provided by
-the standard library, but without it you must define your own. These symbols
-are called "language items", and they each have an internal name, and then a
-signature that an implementation must conform to.
-
-The first of these functions, `rust_eh_personality`, is used by the failure
-mechanisms of the compiler. This is often mapped to GCC's personality function
-(see the [libstd implementation][unwind] for more information), but crates
-which do not trigger a panic can be assured that this function is never
-called. The language item's name is `eh_personality`.
-
-[unwind]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/library/panic_unwind/src/gcc.rs
-
-The second function, `rust_begin_panic`, is also used by the failure mechanisms of the
-compiler. When a panic happens, this controls the message that's displayed on
-the screen. While the language item's name is `panic_impl`, the symbol name is
-`rust_begin_panic`.
-
-Finally, a `eh_catch_typeinfo` static is needed for certain targets which
-implement Rust panics on top of C++ exceptions.
+Note the use of `abort`: the `exchange_malloc` lang item is assumed to
+return a valid pointer, and so needs to do the check internally.
 
 ## List of all language items
 
-This is a list of all language items in Rust along with where they are located in
-the source code.
+An up-to-date list of all language items can be found [here] in the compiler code.
 
-- Primitives
-  - `i8`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `i16`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `i32`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `i64`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `i128`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `isize`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `u8`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `u16`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `u32`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `u64`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `u128`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `usize`: `libcore/num/mod.rs`
-  - `f32`: `libstd/f32.rs`
-  - `f64`: `libstd/f64.rs`
-  - `char`: `libcore/char.rs`
-  - `slice`: `liballoc/slice.rs`
-  - `str`: `liballoc/str.rs`
-  - `const_ptr`: `libcore/ptr.rs`
-  - `mut_ptr`: `libcore/ptr.rs`
-  - `unsafe_cell`: `libcore/cell.rs`
-- Runtime
-  - `start`: `libstd/rt.rs`
-  - `eh_personality`: `libpanic_unwind/emcc.rs` (EMCC)
-  - `eh_personality`: `libpanic_unwind/gcc.rs` (GNU)
-  - `eh_personality`: `libpanic_unwind/seh.rs` (SEH)
-  - `eh_catch_typeinfo`: `libpanic_unwind/emcc.rs` (EMCC)
-  - `panic`: `libcore/panicking.rs`
-  - `panic_bounds_check`: `libcore/panicking.rs`
-  - `panic_impl`: `libcore/panicking.rs`
-  - `panic_impl`: `libstd/panicking.rs`
-- Allocations
-  - `owned_box`: `liballoc/boxed.rs`
-  - `exchange_malloc`: `liballoc/heap.rs`
-- Operands
-  - `not`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitand`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitor`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitxor`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `shl`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `shr`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitand_assign`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitor_assign`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `bitxor_assign`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `shl_assign`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `shr_assign`: `libcore/ops/bit.rs`
-  - `deref`: `libcore/ops/deref.rs`
-  - `deref_mut`: `libcore/ops/deref.rs`
-  - `index`: `libcore/ops/index.rs`
-  - `index_mut`: `libcore/ops/index.rs`
-  - `add`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `sub`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `mul`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `div`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `rem`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `neg`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `add_assign`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `sub_assign`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `mul_assign`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `div_assign`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `rem_assign`: `libcore/ops/arith.rs`
-  - `eq`: `libcore/cmp.rs`
-  - `ord`: `libcore/cmp.rs`
-- Functions
-  - `fn`: `libcore/ops/function.rs`
-  - `fn_mut`: `libcore/ops/function.rs`
-  - `fn_once`: `libcore/ops/function.rs`
-  - `generator_state`: `libcore/ops/generator.rs`
-  - `generator`: `libcore/ops/generator.rs`
-- Other
-  - `coerce_unsized`: `libcore/ops/unsize.rs`
-  - `drop`: `libcore/ops/drop.rs`
-  - `drop_in_place`: `libcore/ptr.rs`
-  - `clone`: `libcore/clone.rs`
-  - `copy`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `send`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `sized`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `unsize`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `sync`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `phantom_data`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `discriminant_kind`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `freeze`: `libcore/marker.rs`
-  - `debug_trait`: `libcore/fmt/mod.rs`
-  - `non_zero`: `libcore/nonzero.rs`
-  - `arc`: `liballoc/sync.rs`
-  - `rc`: `liballoc/rc.rs`
+[here]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/compiler/rustc_hir/src/lang_items.rs

src/doc/unstable-book/src/language-features/start.md

+# `start`
+
+The tracking issue for this feature is: [#29633]
+
+[#29633]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/29633
+
+------------------------
+
+Allows you to mark a function as the entry point of the executable, which is
+necessary in `#![no_std]` environments.
+
+The function marked `#[start]` is passed the command line parameters in the same
+format as the C main function (aside from the integer types being used).
+It has to be non-generic and have the following signature:
+
+```rust,ignore (only-for-syntax-highlight)
+# let _:
+fn(isize, *const *const u8) -> isize
+# ;
+```
+
+This feature should not be confused with the `start` *lang item* which is
+defined by the `std` crate and is written `#[lang = "start"]`.
+
+## Usage together with the `std` crate
+
+`#[start]` can be used in combination with the `std` crate, in which case the
+normal `main` function (which would get called from the `std` crate) won't be
+used as an entry point.
+The initialization code in `std` will be skipped this way.
+
+Example:
+
+```rust
+#![feature(start)]
+
+#[start]
+fn start(_argc: isize, _argv: *const *const u8) -> isize {
+    0
+}
+```
+
+Unwinding the stack past the `#[start]` function is currently considered
+Undefined Behavior (for any unwinding implementation):
+
+```rust,ignore (UB)
+#![feature(start)]
+
+#[start]
+fn start(_argc: isize, _argv: *const *const u8) -> isize {
+    std::panic::catch_unwind(|| {
+        panic!(); // panic safely gets caught or safely aborts execution
+    });
+
+    panic!(); // UB!
+
+    0
+}
+```