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提交 d1b57263 编写于 作者: L Linus Torvalds
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Merge branch 'docs' of git://git.lwn.net/linux-2.6 

* 'docs' of git://git.lwn.net/linux-2.6:
  Document panic_on_unrecovered_nmi sysctl
  Add a reference to paper to SubmittingPatches
  Add kerneldoc documentation for new printk format extensions
  Remove videobook.tmpl
  doc: Test-by?
  Add the development process document
  Documentation/block/data-integrity.txt: Fix section numbers
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Documentation/00-INDEX
浏览文件 @ d1b57263
......@@ -21,6 +21,9 @@ Changes
- list of changes that break older software packages.
CodingStyle
- how the boss likes the C code in the kernel to look.
development-process/
- An extended tutorial on how to work with the kernel development
process.
DMA-API.txt
- DMA API, pci_ API & extensions for non-consistent memory machines.
DMA-ISA-LPC.txt
......
Documentation/DocBook/Makefile
浏览文件 @ d1b57263
......@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
# To add a new book the only step required is to add the book to the
# list of DOCBOOKS.
DOCBOOKS := wanbook.xml z8530book.xml mcabook.xml videobook.xml \
DOCBOOKS := wanbook.xml z8530book.xml mcabook.xml \
kernel-hacking.xml kernel-locking.xml deviceiobook.xml \
procfs-guide.xml writing_usb_driver.xml networking.xml \
kernel-api.xml filesystems.xml lsm.xml usb.xml kgdb.xml \
......
Documentation/DocBook/videobook.tmpl 已删除 100644 → 0
浏览文件 @ c472273f
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.1.2//EN"
"http://www.oasis-open.org/docbook/xml/4.1.2/docbookx.dtd" []>
<book id="V4LGuide">
<bookinfo>
<title>Video4Linux Programming</title>
<authorgroup>
<author>
<firstname>Alan</firstname>
<surname>Cox</surname>
<affiliation>
<address>
<email>alan@redhat.com</email>
</address>
</affiliation>
</author>
</authorgroup>
<copyright>
<year>2000</year>
<holder>Alan Cox</holder>
</copyright>
<legalnotice>
<para>
This documentation is free software; you can redistribute
it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public
License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either
version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later
version.
</para>
<para>
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be
useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied
warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
See the GNU General Public License for more details.
</para>
<para>
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public
License along with this program; if not, write to the Free
Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston,
MA 02111-1307 USA
</para>
<para>
For more details see the file COPYING in the source
distribution of Linux.
</para>
</legalnotice>
</bookinfo>
<toc></toc>
<chapter id="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<para>
Parts of this document first appeared in Linux Magazine under a
ninety day exclusivity.
</para>
<para>
Video4Linux is intended to provide a common programming interface
for the many TV and capture cards now on the market, as well as
parallel port and USB video cameras. Radio, teletext decoders and
vertical blanking data interfaces are also provided.
</para>
</chapter>
<chapter id="radio">
<title>Radio Devices</title>
<para>
There are a wide variety of radio interfaces available for PC's, and these
are generally very simple to program. The biggest problem with supporting
such devices is normally extracting documentation from the vendor.
</para>
<para>
The radio interface supports a simple set of control ioctls standardised
across all radio and tv interfaces. It does not support read or write, which
are used for video streams. The reason radio cards do not allow you to read
the audio stream into an application is that without exception they provide
a connection on to a soundcard. Soundcards can be used to read the radio
data just fine.
</para>
<sect1 id="registerradio">
<title>Registering Radio Devices</title>
<para>
The Video4linux core provides an interface for registering devices. The
first step in writing our radio card driver is to register it.
</para>
<programlisting>
static struct video_device my_radio
{
"My radio",
VID_TYPE_TUNER,
radio_open.
radio_close,
NULL, /* no read */
NULL, /* no write */
NULL, /* no poll */
radio_ioctl,
NULL, /* no special init function */
NULL /* no private data */
};
</programlisting>
<para>
This declares our video4linux device driver interface. The VID_TYPE_ value
defines what kind of an interface we are, and defines basic capabilities.
</para>
<para>
The only defined value relevant for a radio card is VID_TYPE_TUNER which
indicates that the device can be tuned. Clearly our radio is going to have some
way to change channel so it is tuneable.
</para>
<para>
We declare an open and close routine, but we do not need read or write,
which are used to read and write video data to or from the card itself. As
we have no read or write there is no poll function.
</para>
<para>
The private initialise function is run when the device is registered. In
this driver we've already done all the work needed. The final pointer is a
private data pointer that can be used by the device driver to attach and
retrieve private data structures. We set this field "priv" to NULL for
the moment.
</para>
<para>
Having the structure defined is all very well but we now need to register it
with the kernel.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int io = 0x320;
int __init myradio_init(struct video_init *v)
{
if(!request_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE, "myradio"))
{
printk(KERN_ERR
"myradio: port 0x%03X is in use.\n", io);
return -EBUSY;
}
if(video_device_register(&amp;my_radio, VFL_TYPE_RADIO)==-1) {
release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE);
return -EINVAL;
}
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The first stage of the initialisation, as is normally the case, is to check
that the I/O space we are about to fiddle with doesn't belong to some other
driver. If it is we leave well alone. If the user gives the address of the
wrong device then we will spot this. These policies will generally avoid
crashing the machine.
</para>
<para>
Now we ask the Video4Linux layer to register the device for us. We hand it
our carefully designed video_device structure and also tell it which group
of devices we want it registered with. In this case VFL_TYPE_RADIO.
</para>
<para>
The types available are
</para>
<table frame="all" id="Device_Types"><title>Device Types</title>
<tgroup cols="3" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VFL_TYPE_RADIO</entry><entry>/dev/radio{n}</entry><entry>
Radio devices are assigned in this block. As with all of these
selections the actual number assignment is done by the video layer
accordijng to what is free.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VFL_TYPE_GRABBER</entry><entry>/dev/video{n}</entry><entry>
Video capture devices and also -- counter-intuitively for the name --
hardware video playback devices such as MPEG2 cards.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VFL_TYPE_VBI</entry><entry>/dev/vbi{n}</entry><entry>
The VBI devices capture the hidden lines on a television picture
that carry further information like closed caption data, teletext
(primarily in Europe) and now Intercast and the ATVEC internet
television encodings.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VFL_TYPE_VTX</entry><entry>/dev/vtx[n}</entry><entry>
VTX is 'Videotext' also known as 'Teletext'. This is a system for
sending numbered, 40x25, mostly textual page images over the hidden
lines. Unlike the /dev/vbi interfaces, this is for 'smart' decoder
chips. (The use of the word smart here has to be taken in context,
the smartest teletext chips are fairly dumb pieces of technology).
</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
We are most definitely a radio.
</para>
<para>
Finally we allocate our I/O space so that nobody treads on us and return 0
to signify general happiness with the state of the universe.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="openradio">
<title>Opening And Closing The Radio</title>
<para>
The functions we declared in our video_device are mostly very simple.
Firstly we can drop in what is basically standard code for open and close.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int users = 0;
static int radio_open(struct video_device *dev, int flags)
{
if(users)
return -EBUSY;
users++;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
At open time we need to do nothing but check if someone else is also using
the radio card. If nobody is using it we make a note that we are using it,
then we ensure that nobody unloads our driver on us.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int radio_close(struct video_device *dev)
{
users--;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
At close time we simply need to reduce the user count and allow the module
to become unloadable.
</para>
<para>
If you are sharp you will have noticed neither the open nor the close
routines attempt to reset or change the radio settings. This is intentional.
It allows an application to set up the radio and exit. It avoids a user
having to leave an application running all the time just to listen to the
radio.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ioctlradio">
<title>The Ioctl Interface</title>
<para>
This leaves the ioctl routine, without which the driver will not be
terribly useful to anyone.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int radio_ioctl(struct video_device *dev, unsigned int cmd, void *arg)
{
switch(cmd)
{
case VIDIOCGCAP:
{
struct video_capability v;
v.type = VID_TYPE_TUNER;
v.channels = 1;
v.audios = 1;
v.maxwidth = 0;
v.minwidth = 0;
v.maxheight = 0;
v.minheight = 0;
strcpy(v.name, "My Radio");
if(copy_to_user(arg, &amp;v, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
VIDIOCGCAP is the first ioctl all video4linux devices must support. It
allows the applications to find out what sort of a card they have found and
to figure out what they want to do about it. The fields in the structure are
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_capability_fields"><title>struct video_capability fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>name</entry><entry>The device text name. This is intended for the user.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>channels</entry><entry>The number of different channels you can tune on
this card. It could even by zero for a card that has
no tuning capability. For our simple FM radio it is 1.
An AM/FM radio would report 2.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>audios</entry><entry>The number of audio inputs on this device. For our
radio there is only one audio input.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>minwidth,minheight</entry><entry>The smallest size the card is capable of capturing
images in. We set these to zero. Radios do not
capture pictures</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>maxwidth,maxheight</entry><entry>The largest image size the card is capable of
capturing. For our radio we report 0.
</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>type</entry><entry>This reports the capabilities of the device, and
matches the field we filled in in the struct
video_device when registering.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Having filled in the fields, we use copy_to_user to copy the structure into
the users buffer. If the copy fails we return an EFAULT to the application
so that it knows it tried to feed us garbage.
</para>
<para>
The next pair of ioctl operations select which tuner is to be used and let
the application find the tuner properties. We have only a single FM band
tuner in our example device.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCGTUNER:
{
struct video_tuner v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v))!=0)
return -EFAULT;
if(v.tuner)
return -EINVAL;
v.rangelow=(87*16000);
v.rangehigh=(108*16000);
v.flags = VIDEO_TUNER_LOW;
v.mode = VIDEO_MODE_AUTO;
v.signal = 0xFFFF;
strcpy(v.name, "FM");
if(copy_to_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v))!=0)
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The VIDIOCGTUNER ioctl allows applications to query a tuner. The application
sets the tuner field to the tuner number it wishes to query. The query does
not change the tuner that is being used, it merely enquires about the tuner
in question.
</para>
<para>
We have exactly one tuner so after copying the user buffer to our temporary
structure we complain if they asked for a tuner other than tuner 0.
</para>
<para>
The video_tuner structure has the following fields
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_tuner_fields"><title>struct video_tuner fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>int tuner</entry><entry>The number of the tuner in question</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>char name[32]</entry><entry>A text description of this tuner. "FM" will do fine.
This is intended for the application.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>u32 flags</entry>
<entry>Tuner capability flags</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>u16 mode</entry><entry>The current reception mode</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>u16 signal</entry><entry>The signal strength scaled between 0 and 65535. If
a device cannot tell the signal strength it should
report 65535. Many simple cards contain only a
signal/no signal bit. Such cards will report either
0 or 65535.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>u32 rangelow, rangehigh</entry><entry>
The range of frequencies supported by the radio
or TV. It is scaled according to the VIDEO_TUNER_LOW
flag.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_tuner_flags"><title>struct video_tuner flags</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_PAL</entry><entry>A PAL TV tuner</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_NTSC</entry><entry>An NTSC (US) TV tuner</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_SECAM</entry><entry>A SECAM (French) TV tuner</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_LOW</entry><entry>
The tuner frequency is scaled in 1/16th of a KHz
steps. If not it is in 1/16th of a MHz steps
</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_NORM</entry><entry>The tuner can set its format</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TUNER_STEREO_ON</entry><entry>The tuner is currently receiving a stereo signal</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_tuner_modes"><title>struct video_tuner modes</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_PAL</entry><entry>PAL Format</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_NTSC</entry><entry>NTSC Format (USA)</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_SECAM</entry><entry>French Format</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_AUTO</entry><entry>A device that does not need to do
TV format switching</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The settings for the radio card are thus fairly simple. We report that we
are a tuner called "FM" for FM radio. In order to get the best tuning
resolution we report VIDEO_TUNER_LOW and select tuning to 1/16th of KHz. Its
unlikely our card can do that resolution but it is a fair bet the card can
do better than 1/16th of a MHz. VIDEO_TUNER_LOW is appropriate to almost all
radio usage.
</para>
<para>
We report that the tuner automatically handles deciding what format it is
receiving - true enough as it only handles FM radio. Our example card is
also incapable of detecting stereo or signal strengths so it reports a
strength of 0xFFFF (maximum) and no stereo detected.
</para>
<para>
To finish off we set the range that can be tuned to be 87-108Mhz, the normal
FM broadcast radio range. It is important to find out what the card is
actually capable of tuning. It is easy enough to simply use the FM broadcast
range. Unfortunately if you do this you will discover the FM broadcast
ranges in the USA, Europe and Japan are all subtly different and some users
cannot receive all the stations they wish.
</para>
<para>
The application also needs to be able to set the tuner it wishes to use. In
our case, with a single tuner this is rather simple to arrange.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSTUNER:
{
struct video_tuner v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.tuner != 0)
return -EINVAL;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
We copy the user supplied structure into kernel memory so we can examine it.
If the user has selected a tuner other than zero we reject the request. If
they wanted tuner 0 then, surprisingly enough, that is the current tuner already.
</para>
<para>
The next two ioctls we need to provide are to get and set the frequency of
the radio. These both use an unsigned long argument which is the frequency.
The scale of the frequency depends on the VIDEO_TUNER_LOW flag as I
mentioned earlier on. Since we have VIDEO_TUNER_LOW set this will be in
1/16ths of a KHz.
</para>
<programlisting>
static unsigned long current_freq;
case VIDIOCGFREQ:
if(copy_to_user(arg, &amp;current_freq,
sizeof(unsigned long))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
</programlisting>
<para>
Querying the frequency in our case is relatively simple. Our radio card is
too dumb to let us query the signal strength so we remember our setting if
we know it. All we have to do is copy it to the user.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSFREQ:
{
u32 freq;
if(copy_from_user(arg, &amp;freq,
sizeof(unsigned long))!=0)
return -EFAULT;
if(hardware_set_freq(freq)&lt;0)
return -EINVAL;
current_freq = freq;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
Setting the frequency is a little more complex. We begin by copying the
desired frequency into kernel space. Next we call a hardware specific routine
to set the radio up. This might be as simple as some scaling and a few
writes to an I/O port. For most radio cards it turns out a good deal more
complicated and may involve programming things like a phase locked loop on
the card. This is what documentation is for.
</para>
<para>
The final set of operations we need to provide for our radio are the
volume controls. Not all radio cards can even do volume control. After all
there is a perfectly good volume control on the sound card. We will assume
our radio card has a simple 4 step volume control.
</para>
<para>
There are two ioctls with audio we need to support
</para>
<programlisting>
static int current_volume=0;
case VIDIOCGAUDIO:
{
struct video_audio v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.audio != 0)
return -EINVAL;
v.volume = 16384*current_volume;
v.step = 16384;
strcpy(v.name, "Radio");
v.mode = VIDEO_SOUND_MONO;
v.balance = 0;
v.base = 0;
v.treble = 0;
if(copy_to_user(arg. &amp;v, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
Much like the tuner we start by copying the user structure into kernel
space. Again we check if the user has asked for a valid audio input. We have
only input 0 and we punt if they ask for another input.
</para>
<para>
Then we fill in the video_audio structure. This has the following format
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_audio_fields"><title>struct video_audio fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>audio</entry><entry>The input the user wishes to query</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>volume</entry><entry>The volume setting on a scale of 0-65535</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>base</entry><entry>The base level on a scale of 0-65535</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>treble</entry><entry>The treble level on a scale of 0-65535</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>flags</entry><entry>The features this audio device supports
</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>name</entry><entry>A text name to display to the user. We picked
"Radio" as it explains things quite nicely.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>mode</entry><entry>The current reception mode for the audio
We report MONO because our card is too stupid to know if it is in
mono or stereo.
</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>balance</entry><entry>The stereo balance on a scale of 0-65535, 32768 is
middle.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>step</entry><entry>The step by which the volume control jumps. This is
used to help make it easy for applications to set
slider behaviour.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_audio_flags"><title>struct video_audio flags</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE</entry><entry>The audio is currently muted. We
could fake this in our driver but we
choose not to bother.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTABLE</entry><entry>The input has a mute option</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_TREBLE</entry><entry>The input has a treble control</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_BASS</entry><entry>The input has a base control</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_audio_modes"><title>struct video_audio modes</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_SOUND_MONO</entry><entry>Mono sound</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_SOUND_STEREO</entry><entry>Stereo sound</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_SOUND_LANG1</entry><entry>Alternative language 1 (TV specific)</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_SOUND_LANG2</entry><entry>Alternative language 2 (TV specific)</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Having filled in the structure we copy it back to user space.
</para>
<para>
The VIDIOCSAUDIO ioctl allows the user to set the audio parameters in the
video_audio structure. The driver does its best to honour the request.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSAUDIO:
{
struct video_audio v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.audio)
return -EINVAL;
current_volume = v/16384;
hardware_set_volume(current_volume);
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
In our case there is very little that the user can set. The volume is
basically the limit. Note that we could pretend to have a mute feature
by rewriting this to
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSAUDIO:
{
struct video_audio v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.audio)
return -EINVAL;
current_volume = v/16384;
if(v.flags&amp;VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE)
hardware_set_volume(0);
else
hardware_set_volume(current_volume);
current_muted = v.flags &amp;
VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
This with the corresponding changes to the VIDIOCGAUDIO code to report the
state of the mute flag we save and to report the card has a mute function,
will allow applications to use a mute facility with this card. It is
questionable whether this is a good idea however. User applications can already
fake this themselves and kernel space is precious.
</para>
<para>
We now have a working radio ioctl handler. So we just wrap up the function
</para>
<programlisting>
}
return -ENOIOCTLCMD;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
and pass the Video4Linux layer back an error so that it knows we did not
understand the request we got passed.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="modradio">
<title>Module Wrapper</title>
<para>
Finally we add in the usual module wrapping and the driver is done.
</para>
<programlisting>
#ifndef MODULE
static int io = 0x300;
#else
static int io = -1;
#endif
MODULE_AUTHOR("Alan Cox");
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("A driver for an imaginary radio card.");
module_param(io, int, 0444);
MODULE_PARM_DESC(io, "I/O address of the card.");
static int __init init(void)
{
if(io==-1)
{
printk(KERN_ERR
"You must set an I/O address with io=0x???\n");
return -EINVAL;
}
return myradio_init(NULL);
}
static void __exit cleanup(void)
{
video_unregister_device(&amp;my_radio);
release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE);
}
module_init(init);
module_exit(cleanup);
</programlisting>
<para>
In this example we set the IO base by default if the driver is compiled into
the kernel: you can still set it using "my_radio.irq" if this file is called <filename>my_radio.c</filename>. For the module we require the
user sets the parameter. We set io to a nonsense port (-1) so that we can
tell if the user supplied an io parameter or not.
</para>
<para>
We use MODULE_ defines to give an author for the card driver and a
description. We also use them to declare that io is an integer and it is the
address of the card, and can be read by anyone from sysfs.
</para>
<para>
The clean-up routine unregisters the video_device we registered, and frees
up the I/O space. Note that the unregister takes the actual video_device
structure as its argument. Unlike the file operations structure which can be
shared by all instances of a device a video_device structure as an actual
instance of the device. If you are registering multiple radio devices you
need to fill in one structure per device (most likely by setting up a
template and copying it to each of the actual device structures).
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter id="Video_Capture_Devices">
<title>Video Capture Devices</title>
<sect1 id="introvid">
<title>Video Capture Device Types</title>
<para>
The video capture devices share the same interfaces as radio devices. In
order to explain the video capture interface I will use the example of a
camera that has no tuners or audio input. This keeps the example relatively
clean. To get both combine the two driver examples.
</para>
<para>
Video capture devices divide into four categories. A little technology
backgrounder. Full motion video even at television resolution (which is
actually fairly low) is pretty resource-intensive. You are continually
passing megabytes of data every second from the capture card to the display.
several alternative approaches have emerged because copying this through the
processor and the user program is a particularly bad idea .
</para>
<para>
The first is to add the television image onto the video output directly.
This is also how some 3D cards work. These basic cards can generally drop the
video into any chosen rectangle of the display. Cards like this, which
include most mpeg1 cards that used the feature connector, aren't very
friendly in a windowing environment. They don't understand windows or
clipping. The video window is always on the top of the display.
</para>
<para>
Chroma keying is a technique used by cards to get around this. It is an old
television mixing trick where you mark all the areas you wish to replace
with a single clear colour that isn't used in the image - TV people use an
incredibly bright blue while computing people often use a particularly
virulent purple. Bright blue occurs on the desktop. Anyone with virulent
purple windows has another problem besides their TV overlay.
</para>
<para>
The third approach is to copy the data from the capture card to the video
card, but to do it directly across the PCI bus. This relieves the processor
from doing the work but does require some smartness on the part of the video
capture chip, as well as a suitable video card. Programming this kind of
card and more so debugging it can be extremely tricky. There are some quite
complicated interactions with the display and you may also have to cope with
various chipset bugs that show up when PCI cards start talking to each
other.
</para>
<para>
To keep our example fairly simple we will assume a card that supports
overlaying a flat rectangular image onto the frame buffer output, and which
can also capture stuff into processor memory.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="regvid">
<title>Registering Video Capture Devices</title>
<para>
This time we need to add more functions for our camera device.
</para>
<programlisting>
static struct video_device my_camera
{
"My Camera",
VID_TYPE_OVERLAY|VID_TYPE_SCALES|\
VID_TYPE_CAPTURE|VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY,
camera_open.
camera_close,
camera_read, /* no read */
NULL, /* no write */
camera_poll, /* no poll */
camera_ioctl,
NULL, /* no special init function */
NULL /* no private data */
};
</programlisting>
<para>
We need a read() function which is used for capturing data from
the card, and we need a poll function so that a driver can wait for the next
frame to be captured.
</para>
<para>
We use the extra video capability flags that did not apply to the
radio interface. The video related flags are
</para>
<table frame="all" id="Capture_Capabilities"><title>Capture Capabilities</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_CAPTURE</entry><entry>We support image capture</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_TELETEXT</entry><entry>A teletext capture device (vbi{n])</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_OVERLAY</entry><entry>The image can be directly overlaid onto the
frame buffer</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY</entry><entry>Chromakey can be used to select which parts
of the image to display</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_CLIPPING</entry><entry>It is possible to give the board a list of
rectangles to draw around. </entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_FRAMERAM</entry><entry>The video capture goes into the video memory
and actually changes it. Applications need
to know this so they can clean up after the
card</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_SCALES</entry><entry>The image can be scaled to various sizes,
rather than being a single fixed size.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_MONOCHROME</entry><entry>The capture will be monochrome. This isn't a
complete answer to the question since a mono
camera on a colour capture card will still
produce mono output.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VID_TYPE_SUBCAPTURE</entry><entry>The card allows only part of its field of
view to be captured. This enables
applications to avoid copying all of a large
image into memory when only some section is
relevant.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
We set VID_TYPE_CAPTURE so that we are seen as a capture card,
VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY so the application knows it is time to draw in virulent
purple, and VID_TYPE_SCALES because we can be resized.
</para>
<para>
Our setup is fairly similar. This time we also want an interrupt line
for the 'frame captured' signal. Not all cards have this so some of them
cannot handle poll().
</para>
<programlisting>
static int io = 0x320;
static int irq = 11;
int __init mycamera_init(struct video_init *v)
{
if(!request_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE, "mycamera"))
{
printk(KERN_ERR
"mycamera: port 0x%03X is in use.\n", io);
return -EBUSY;
}
if(video_device_register(&amp;my_camera,
VFL_TYPE_GRABBER)==-1) {
release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE);
return -EINVAL;
}
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
This is little changed from the needs of the radio card. We specify
VFL_TYPE_GRABBER this time as we want to be allocated a /dev/video name.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="opvid">
<title>Opening And Closing The Capture Device</title>
<programlisting>
static int users = 0;
static int camera_open(struct video_device *dev, int flags)
{
if(users)
return -EBUSY;
if(request_irq(irq, camera_irq, 0, "camera", dev)&lt;0)
return -EBUSY;
users++;
return 0;
}
static int camera_close(struct video_device *dev)
{
users--;
free_irq(irq, dev);
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The open and close routines are also quite similar. The only real change is
that we now request an interrupt for the camera device interrupt line. If we
cannot get the interrupt we report EBUSY to the application and give up.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="irqvid">
<title>Interrupt Handling</title>
<para>
Our example handler is for an ISA bus device. If it was PCI you would be
able to share the interrupt and would have set IRQF_SHARED to indicate a
shared IRQ. We pass the device pointer as the interrupt routine argument. We
don't need to since we only support one card but doing this will make it
easier to upgrade the driver for multiple devices in the future.
</para>
<para>
Our interrupt routine needs to do little if we assume the card can simply
queue one frame to be read after it captures it.
</para>
<programlisting>
static struct wait_queue *capture_wait;
static int capture_ready = 0;
static void camera_irq(int irq, void *dev_id,
struct pt_regs *regs)
{
capture_ready=1;
wake_up_interruptible(&amp;capture_wait);
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The interrupt handler is nice and simple for this card as we are assuming
the card is buffering the frame for us. This means we have little to do but
wake up anybody interested. We also set a capture_ready flag, as we may
capture a frame before an application needs it. In this case we need to know
that a frame is ready. If we had to collect the frame on the interrupt life
would be more complex.
</para>
<para>
The two new routines we need to supply are camera_read which returns a
frame, and camera_poll which waits for a frame to become ready.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int camera_poll(struct video_device *dev,
struct file *file, struct poll_table *wait)
{
poll_wait(file, &amp;capture_wait, wait);
if(capture_read)
return POLLIN|POLLRDNORM;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
Our wait queue for polling is the capture_wait queue. This will cause the
task to be woken up by our camera_irq routine. We check capture_read to see
if there is an image present and if so report that it is readable.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="rdvid">
<title>Reading The Video Image</title>
<programlisting>
static long camera_read(struct video_device *dev, char *buf,
unsigned long count)
{
struct wait_queue wait = { current, NULL };
u8 *ptr;
int len;
int i;
add_wait_queue(&amp;capture_wait, &amp;wait);
while(!capture_ready)
{
if(file->flags&amp;O_NDELAY)
{
remove_wait_queue(&amp;capture_wait, &amp;wait);
current->state = TASK_RUNNING;
return -EWOULDBLOCK;
}
if(signal_pending(current))
{
remove_wait_queue(&amp;capture_wait, &amp;wait);
current->state = TASK_RUNNING;
return -ERESTARTSYS;
}
schedule();
current->state = TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE;
}
remove_wait_queue(&amp;capture_wait, &amp;wait);
current->state = TASK_RUNNING;
</programlisting>
<para>
The first thing we have to do is to ensure that the application waits until
the next frame is ready. The code here is almost identical to the mouse code
we used earlier in this chapter. It is one of the common building blocks of
Linux device driver code and probably one which you will find occurs in any
drivers you write.
</para>
<para>
We wait for a frame to be ready, or for a signal to interrupt our waiting. If a
signal occurs we need to return from the system call so that the signal can
be sent to the application itself. We also check to see if the user actually
wanted to avoid waiting - ie if they are using non-blocking I/O and have other things
to get on with.
</para>
<para>
Next we copy the data from the card to the user application. This is rarely
as easy as our example makes out. We will add capture_w, and capture_h here
to hold the width and height of the captured image. We assume the card only
supports 24bit RGB for now.
</para>
<programlisting>
capture_ready = 0;
ptr=(u8 *)buf;
len = capture_w * 3 * capture_h; /* 24bit RGB */
if(len>count)
len=count; /* Doesn't all fit */
for(i=0; i&lt;len; i++)
{
put_user(inb(io+IMAGE_DATA), ptr);
ptr++;
}
hardware_restart_capture();
return i;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
For a real hardware device you would try to avoid the loop with put_user().
Each call to put_user() has a time overhead checking whether the accesses to user
space are allowed. It would be better to read a line into a temporary buffer
then copy this to user space in one go.
</para>
<para>
Having captured the image and put it into user space we can kick the card to
get the next frame acquired.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="iocvid">
<title>Video Ioctl Handling</title>
<para>
As with the radio driver the major control interface is via the ioctl()
function. Video capture devices support the same tuner calls as a radio
device and also support additional calls to control how the video functions
are handled. In this simple example the card has no tuners to avoid making
the code complex.
</para>
<programlisting>
static int camera_ioctl(struct video_device *dev, unsigned int cmd, void *arg)
{
switch(cmd)
{
case VIDIOCGCAP:
{
struct video_capability v;
v.type = VID_TYPE_CAPTURE|\
VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY|\
VID_TYPE_SCALES|\
VID_TYPE_OVERLAY;
v.channels = 1;
v.audios = 0;
v.maxwidth = 640;
v.minwidth = 16;
v.maxheight = 480;
v.minheight = 16;
strcpy(v.name, "My Camera");
if(copy_to_user(arg, &amp;v, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The first ioctl we must support and which all video capture and radio
devices are required to support is VIDIOCGCAP. This behaves exactly the same
as with a radio device. This time, however, we report the extra capabilities
we outlined earlier on when defining our video_dev structure.
</para>
<para>
We now set the video flags saying that we support overlay, capture,
scaling and chromakey. We also report size limits - our smallest image is
16x16 pixels, our largest is 640x480.
</para>
<para>
To keep things simple we report no audio and no tuning capabilities at all.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCGCHAN:
{
struct video_channel v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.channel != 0)
return -EINVAL;
v.flags = 0;
v.tuners = 0;
v.type = VIDEO_TYPE_CAMERA;
v.norm = VIDEO_MODE_AUTO;
strcpy(v.name, "Camera Input");break;
if(copy_to_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
This follows what is very much the standard way an ioctl handler looks
in Linux. We copy the data into a kernel space variable and we check that the
request is valid (in this case that the input is 0). Finally we copy the
camera info back to the user.
</para>
<para>
The VIDIOCGCHAN ioctl allows a user to ask about video channels (that is
inputs to the video card). Our example card has a single camera input. The
fields in the structure are
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_channel_fields"><title>struct video_channel fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>channel</entry><entry>The channel number we are selecting</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>name</entry><entry>The name for this channel. This is intended
to describe the port to the user.
Appropriate names are therefore things like
"Camera" "SCART input"</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>flags</entry><entry>Channel properties</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>type</entry><entry>Input type</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>norm</entry><entry>The current television encoding being used
if relevant for this channel.
</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_channel_flags"><title>struct video_channel flags</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_VC_TUNER</entry><entry>Channel has a tuner.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_VC_AUDIO</entry><entry>Channel has audio.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_channel_types"><title>struct video_channel types</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_TYPE_TV</entry><entry>Television input.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_TYPE_CAMERA</entry><entry>Fixed camera input.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>0</entry><entry>Type is unknown.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table frame="all" id="video_channel_norms"><title>struct video_channel norms</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_PAL</entry><entry>PAL encoded Television</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_NTSC</entry><entry>NTSC (US) encoded Television</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_SECAM</entry><entry>SECAM (French) Television </entry>
</row><row>
<entry>VIDEO_MODE_AUTO</entry><entry>Automatic switching, or format does not
matter</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The corresponding VIDIOCSCHAN ioctl allows a user to change channel and to
request the norm is changed - for example to switch between a PAL or an NTSC
format camera.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSCHAN:
{
struct video_channel v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.channel != 0)
return -EINVAL;
if(v.norm != VIDEO_MODE_AUTO)
return -EINVAL;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The implementation of this call in our driver is remarkably easy. Because we
are assuming fixed format hardware we need only check that the user has not
tried to change anything.
</para>
<para>
The user also needs to be able to configure and adjust the picture they are
seeing. This is much like adjusting a television set. A user application
also needs to know the palette being used so that it knows how to display
the image that has been captured. The VIDIOCGPICT and VIDIOCSPICT ioctl
calls provide this information.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCGPICT
{
struct video_picture v;
v.brightness = hardware_brightness();
v.hue = hardware_hue();
v.colour = hardware_saturation();
v.contrast = hardware_brightness();
/* Not settable */
v.whiteness = 32768;
v.depth = 24; /* 24bit */
v.palette = VIDEO_PALETTE_RGB24;
if(copy_to_user(&amp;v, arg,
sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The brightness, hue, color, and contrast provide the picture controls that
are akin to a conventional television. Whiteness provides additional
control for greyscale images. All of these values are scaled between 0-65535
and have 32768 as the mid point setting. The scaling means that applications
do not have to worry about the capability range of the hardware but can let
it make a best effort attempt.
</para>
<para>
Our depth is 24, as this is in bits. We will be returning RGB24 format. This
has one byte of red, then one of green, then one of blue. This then repeats
for every other pixel in the image. The other common formats the interface
defines are
</para>
<table frame="all" id="Framebuffer_Encodings"><title>Framebuffer Encodings</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>GREY</entry><entry>Linear greyscale. This is for simple cameras and the
like</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>RGB565</entry><entry>The top 5 bits hold 32 red levels, the next six bits
hold green and the low 5 bits hold blue. </entry>
</row><row>
<entry>RGB555</entry><entry>The top bit is clear. The red green and blue levels
each occupy five bits.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Additional modes are support for YUV capture formats. These are common for
TV and video conferencing applications.
</para>
<para>
The VIDIOCSPICT ioctl allows a user to set some of the picture parameters.
Exactly which ones are supported depends heavily on the card itself. It is
possible to support many modes and effects in software. In general doing
this in the kernel is a bad idea. Video capture is a performance-sensitive
application and the programs can often do better if they aren't being
'helped' by an overkeen driver writer. Thus for our device we will report
RGB24 only and refuse to allow a change.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSPICT:
{
struct video_picture v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.depth!=24 ||
v.palette != VIDEO_PALETTE_RGB24)
return -EINVAL;
set_hardware_brightness(v.brightness);
set_hardware_hue(v.hue);
set_hardware_saturation(v.colour);
set_hardware_brightness(v.contrast);
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
We check the user has not tried to change the palette or the depth. We do
not want to carry out some of the changes and then return an error. This may
confuse the application which will be assuming no change occurred.
</para>
<para>
In much the same way as you need to be able to set the picture controls to
get the right capture images, many cards need to know what they are
displaying onto when generating overlay output. In some cases getting this
wrong even makes a nasty mess or may crash the computer. For that reason
the VIDIOCSBUF ioctl used to set up the frame buffer information may well
only be usable by root.
</para>
<para>
We will assume our card is one of the old ISA devices with feature connector
and only supports a couple of standard video modes. Very common for older
cards although the PCI devices are way smarter than this.
</para>
<programlisting>
static struct video_buffer capture_fb;
case VIDIOCGFBUF:
{
if(copy_to_user(arg, &amp;capture_fb,
sizeof(capture_fb)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
We keep the frame buffer information in the format the ioctl uses. This
makes it nice and easy to work with in the ioctl calls.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCSFBUF:
{
struct video_buffer v;
if(!capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN))
return -EPERM;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.width!=320 &amp;&amp; v.width!=640)
return -EINVAL;
if(v.height!=200 &amp;&amp; v.height!=240
&amp;&amp; v.height!=400
&amp;&amp; v.height !=480)
return -EINVAL;
memcpy(&amp;capture_fb, &amp;v, sizeof(v));
hardware_set_fb(&amp;v);
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
The capable() function checks a user has the required capability. The Linux
operating system has a set of about 30 capabilities indicating privileged
access to services. The default set up gives the superuser (uid 0) all of
them and nobody else has any.
</para>
<para>
We check that the user has the SYS_ADMIN capability, that is they are
allowed to operate as the machine administrator. We don't want anyone but
the administrator making a mess of the display.
</para>
<para>
Next we check for standard PC video modes (320 or 640 wide with either
EGA or VGA depths). If the mode is not a standard video mode we reject it as
not supported by our card. If the mode is acceptable we save it so that
VIDIOCFBUF will give the right answer next time it is called. The
hardware_set_fb() function is some undescribed card specific function to
program the card for the desired mode.
</para>
<para>
Before the driver can display an overlay window it needs to know where the
window should be placed, and also how large it should be. If the card
supports clipping it needs to know which rectangles to omit from the
display. The video_window structure is used to describe the way the image
should be displayed.
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_window_fields"><title>struct video_window fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>width</entry><entry>The width in pixels of the desired image. The card
may use a smaller size if this size is not available</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>height</entry><entry>The height of the image. The card may use a smaller
size if this size is not available.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>x</entry><entry> The X position of the top left of the window. This
is in pixels relative to the left hand edge of the
picture. Not all cards can display images aligned on
any pixel boundary. If the position is unsuitable
the card adjusts the image right and reduces the
width.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>y</entry><entry> The Y position of the top left of the window. This
is counted in pixels relative to the top edge of the
picture. As with the width if the card cannot
display starting on this line it will adjust the
values.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>chromakey</entry><entry>The colour (expressed in RGB32 format) for the
chromakey colour if chroma keying is being used. </entry>
</row><row>
<entry>clips</entry><entry>An array of rectangles that must not be drawn
over.</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>clipcount</entry><entry>The number of clips in this array.</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Each clip is a struct video_clip which has the following fields
</para>
<table frame="all" id="video_clip_fields"><title>video_clip fields</title>
<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>x, y</entry><entry>Co-ordinates relative to the display</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>width, height</entry><entry>Width and height in pixels</entry>
</row><row>
<entry>next</entry><entry>A spare field for the application to use</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The driver is required to ensure it always draws in the area requested or a smaller area, and that it never draws in any of the areas that are clipped.
This may well mean it has to leave alone. small areas the application wished to be
drawn.
</para>
<para>
Our example card uses chromakey so does not have to address most of the
clipping. We will add a video_window structure to our global variables to
remember our parameters, as we did with the frame buffer.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCGWIN:
{
if(copy_to_user(arg, &amp;capture_win,
sizeof(capture_win)))
return -EFAULT;
return 0;
}
case VIDIOCSWIN:
{
struct video_window v;
if(copy_from_user(&amp;v, arg, sizeof(v)))
return -EFAULT;
if(v.width &gt; 640 || v.height &gt; 480)
return -EINVAL;
if(v.width &lt; 16 || v.height &lt; 16)
return -EINVAL;
hardware_set_key(v.chromakey);
hardware_set_window(v);
memcpy(&amp;capture_win, &amp;v, sizeof(v));
capture_w = v.width;
capture_h = v.height;
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
Because we are using Chromakey our setup is fairly simple. Mostly we have to
check the values are sane and load them into the capture card.
</para>
<para>
With all the setup done we can now turn on the actual capture/overlay. This
is done with the VIDIOCCAPTURE ioctl. This takes a single integer argument
where 0 is on and 1 is off.
</para>
<programlisting>
case VIDIOCCAPTURE:
{
int v;
if(get_user(v, (int *)arg))
return -EFAULT;
if(v==0)
hardware_capture_off();
else
{
if(capture_fb.width == 0
|| capture_w == 0)
return -EINVAL;
hardware_capture_on();
}
return 0;
}
</programlisting>
<para>
We grab the flag from user space and either enable or disable according to
its value. There is one small corner case we have to consider here. Suppose
that the capture was requested before the video window or the frame buffer
had been set up. In those cases there will be unconfigured fields in our
card data, as well as unconfigured hardware settings. We check for this case and
return an error if the frame buffer or the capture window width is zero.
</para>
<programlisting>
default:
return -ENOIOCTLCMD;
}
}
</programlisting>
<para>
We don't need to support any other ioctls, so if we get this far, it is time
to tell the video layer that we don't now what the user is talking about.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="endvid">
<title>Other Functionality</title>
<para>
The Video4Linux layer supports additional features, including a high
performance mmap() based capture mode and capturing part of the image.
These features are out of the scope of the book. You should however have enough
example code to implement most simple video4linux devices for radio and TV
cards.
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
<chapter id="bugs">
<title>Known Bugs And Assumptions</title>
<para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry><term>Multiple Opens</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The driver assumes multiple opens should not be allowed. A driver
can work around this but not cleanly.
</para>
</listitem></varlistentry>
<varlistentry><term>API Deficiencies</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The existing API poorly reflects compression capable devices. There
are plans afoot to merge V4L, V4L2 and some other ideas into a
better interface.
</para>
</listitem></varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</chapter>
<chapter id="pubfunctions">
<title>Public Functions Provided</title>
!Edrivers/media/video/v4l2-dev.c
</chapter>
</book>
Documentation/SubmittingPatches
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......@@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ person it names. This tag documents that potentially interested parties
have been included in the discussion
14) Using Test-by: and Reviewed-by:
14) Using Tested-by: and Reviewed-by:
A Tested-by: tag indicates that the patch has been successfully tested (in
some environment) by the person named. This tag informs maintainers that
......
Documentation/block/data-integrity.txt
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......@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ will require extra work due to the application tag.
retrieve the tag buffer using bio_integrity_get_tag().
6.3 PASSING EXISTING INTEGRITY METADATA
5.3 PASSING EXISTING INTEGRITY METADATA
Filesystems that either generate their own integrity metadata or
are capable of transferring IMD from user space can use the
......@@ -283,7 +283,7 @@ will require extra work due to the application tag.
integrity upon completion.
6.4 REGISTERING A BLOCK DEVICE AS CAPABLE OF EXCHANGING INTEGRITY
5.4 REGISTERING A BLOCK DEVICE AS CAPABLE OF EXCHANGING INTEGRITY
METADATA
To enable integrity exchange on a block device the gendisk must be
......
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1: A GUIDE TO THE KERNEL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
The purpose of this document is to help developers (and their managers)
work with the development community with a minimum of frustration. It is
an attempt to document how this community works in a way which is
accessible to those who are not intimately familiar with Linux kernel
development (or, indeed, free software development in general). While
there is some technical material here, this is very much a process-oriented
discussion which does not require a deep knowledge of kernel programming to
understand.
1.1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The rest of this section covers the scope of the kernel development process
and the kinds of frustrations that developers and their employers can
encounter there. There are a great many reasons why kernel code should be
merged into the official ("mainline") kernel, including automatic
availability to users, community support in many forms, and the ability to
influence the direction of kernel development. Code contributed to the
Linux kernel must be made available under a GPL-compatible license.
Section 2 introduces the development process, the kernel release cycle, and
the mechanics of the merge window. The various phases in the patch
development, review, and merging cycle are covered. There is some
discussion of tools and mailing lists. Developers wanting to get started
with kernel development are encouraged to track down and fix bugs as an
initial exercise.
Section 3 covers early-stage project planning, with an emphasis on
involving the development community as soon as possible.
Section 4 is about the coding process; several pitfalls which have been
encountered by other developers are discussed. Some requirements for
patches are covered, and there is an introduction to some of the tools
which can help to ensure that kernel patches are correct.
Section 5 talks about the process of posting patches for review. To be
taken seriously by the development community, patches must be properly
formatted and described, and they must be sent to the right place.
Following the advice in this section should help to ensure the best
possible reception for your work.
Section 6 covers what happens after posting patches; the job is far from
done at that point. Working with reviewers is a crucial part of the
development process; this section offers a number of tips on how to avoid
problems at this important stage. Developers are cautioned against
assuming that the job is done when a patch is merged into the mainline.
Section 7 introduces a couple of "advanced" topics: managing patches with
git and reviewing patches posted by others.
Section 8 concludes the document with pointers to sources for more
information on kernel development.
1.2: WHAT THIS DOCUMENT IS ABOUT
The Linux kernel, at over 6 million lines of code and well over 1000 active
contributors, is one of the largest and most active free software projects
in existence. Since its humble beginning in 1991, this kernel has evolved
into a best-of-breed operating system component which runs on pocket-sized
digital music players, desktop PCs, the largest supercomputers in
existence, and all types of systems in between. It is a robust, efficient,
and scalable solution for almost any situation.
With the growth of Linux has come an increase in the number of developers
(and companies) wishing to participate in its development. Hardware
vendors want to ensure that Linux supports their products well, making
those products attractive to Linux users. Embedded systems vendors, who
use Linux as a component in an integrated product, want Linux to be as
capable and well-suited to the task at hand as possible. Distributors and
other software vendors who base their products on Linux have a clear
interest in the capabilities, performance, and reliability of the Linux
kernel. And end users, too, will often wish to change Linux to make it
better suit their needs.
One of the most compelling features of Linux is that it is accessible to
these developers; anybody with the requisite skills can improve Linux and
influence the direction of its development. Proprietary products cannot
offer this kind of openness, which is a characteristic of the free software
process. But, if anything, the kernel is even more open than most other
free software projects. A typical three-month kernel development cycle can
involve over 1000 developers working for more than 100 different companies
(or for no company at all).
Working with the kernel development community is not especially hard. But,
that notwithstanding, many potential contributors have experienced
difficulties when trying to do kernel work. The kernel community has
evolved its own distinct ways of operating which allow it to function
smoothly (and produce a high-quality product) in an environment where
thousands of lines of code are being changed every day. So it is not
surprising that Linux kernel development process differs greatly from
proprietary development methods.
The kernel's development process may come across as strange and
intimidating to new developers, but there are good reasons and solid
experience behind it. A developer who does not understand the kernel
community's ways (or, worse, who tries to flout or circumvent them) will
have a frustrating experience in store. The development community, while
being helpful to those who are trying to learn, has little time for those
who will not listen or who do not care about the development process.
It is hoped that those who read this document will be able to avoid that
frustrating experience. There is a lot of material here, but the effort
involved in reading it will be repaid in short order. The development
community is always in need of developers who will help to make the kernel
better; the following text should help you - or those who work for you -
join our community.
1.3: CREDITS
This document was written by Jonathan Corbet, corbet@lwn.net. It has been
improved by comments from Johannes Berg, James Berry, Alex Chiang, Roland
Dreier, Randy Dunlap, Jake Edge, Jiri Kosina, Matt Mackall, Arthur Marsh,
Amanda McPherson, Andrew Morton, Andrew Price, Tsugikazu Shibata, and
Jochen Voß.
This work was supported by the Linux Foundation; thanks especially to
Amanda McPherson, who saw the value of this effort and made it all happen.
1.4: THE IMPORTANCE OF GETTING CODE INTO THE MAINLINE
Some companies and developers occasionally wonder why they should bother
learning how to work with the kernel community and get their code into the
mainline kernel (the "mainline" being the kernel maintained by Linus
Torvalds and used as a base by Linux distributors). In the short term,
contributing code can look like an avoidable expense; it seems easier to
just keep the code separate and support users directly. The truth of the
matter is that keeping code separate ("out of tree") is a false economy.
As a way of illustrating the costs of out-of-tree code, here are a few
relevant aspects of the kernel development process; most of these will be
discussed in greater detail later in this document. Consider:
- Code which has been merged into the mainline kernel is available to all
Linux users. It will automatically be present on all distributions which
enable it. There is no need for driver disks, downloads, or the hassles
of supporting multiple versions of multiple distributions; it all just
works, for the developer and for the user. Incorporation into the
mainline solves a large number of distribution and support problems.
- While kernel developers strive to maintain a stable interface to user
space, the internal kernel API is in constant flux. The lack of a stable
internal interface is a deliberate design decision; it allows fundamental
improvements to be made at any time and results in higher-quality code.
But one result of that policy is that any out-of-tree code requires
constant upkeep if it is to work with new kernels. Maintaining
out-of-tree code requires significant amounts of work just to keep that
code working.
Code which is in the mainline, instead, does not require this work as the
result of a simple rule requiring any developer who makes an API change
to also fix any code that breaks as the result of that change. So code
which has been merged into the mainline has significantly lower
maintenance costs.
- Beyond that, code which is in the kernel will often be improved by other
developers. Surprising results can come from empowering your user
community and customers to improve your product.
- Kernel code is subjected to review, both before and after merging into
the mainline. No matter how strong the original developer's skills are,
this review process invariably finds ways in which the code can be
improved. Often review finds severe bugs and security problems. This is
especially true for code which has been developed in a closed
environment; such code benefits strongly from review by outside
developers. Out-of-tree code is lower-quality code.
- Participation in the development process is your way to influence the
direction of kernel development. Users who complain from the sidelines
are heard, but active developers have a stronger voice - and the ability
to implement changes which make the kernel work better for their needs.
- When code is maintained separately, the possibility that a third party
will contribute a different implementation of a similar feature always
exists. Should that happen, getting your code merged will become much
harder - to the point of impossibility. Then you will be faced with the
unpleasant alternatives of either (1) maintaining a nonstandard feature
out of tree indefinitely, or (2) abandoning your code and migrating your
users over to the in-tree version.
- Contribution of code is the fundamental action which makes the whole
process work. By contributing your code you can add new functionality to
the kernel and provide capabilities and examples which are of use to
other kernel developers. If you have developed code for Linux (or are
thinking about doing so), you clearly have an interest in the continued
success of this platform; contributing code is one of the best ways to
help ensure that success.
All of the reasoning above applies to any out-of-tree kernel code,
including code which is distributed in proprietary, binary-only form.
There are, however, additional factors which should be taken into account
before considering any sort of binary-only kernel code distribution. These
include:
- The legal issues around the distribution of proprietary kernel modules
are cloudy at best; quite a few kernel copyright holders believe that
most binary-only modules are derived products of the kernel and that, as
a result, their distribution is a violation of the GNU General Public
license (about which more will be said below). Your author is not a
lawyer, and nothing in this document can possibly be considered to be
legal advice. The true legal status of closed-source modules can only be
determined by the courts. But the uncertainty which haunts those modules
is there regardless.
- Binary modules greatly increase the difficulty of debugging kernel
problems, to the point that most kernel developers will not even try. So
the distribution of binary-only modules will make it harder for your
users to get support from the community.
- Support is also harder for distributors of binary-only modules, who must
provide a version of the module for every distribution and every kernel
version they wish to support. Dozens of builds of a single module can
be required to provide reasonably comprehensive coverage, and your users
will have to upgrade your module separately every time they upgrade their
kernel.
- Everything that was said above about code review applies doubly to
closed-source code. Since this code is not available at all, it cannot
have been reviewed by the community and will, beyond doubt, have serious
problems.
Makers of embedded systems, in particular, may be tempted to disregard much
of what has been said in this section in the belief that they are shipping
a self-contained product which uses a frozen kernel version and requires no
more development after its release. This argument misses the value of
widespread code review and the value of allowing your users to add
capabilities to your product. But these products, too, have a limited
commercial life, after which a new version must be released. At that
point, vendors whose code is in the mainline and well maintained will be
much better positioned to get the new product ready for market quickly.
1.5: LICENSING
Code is contributed to the Linux kernel under a number of licenses, but all
code must be compatible with version 2 of the GNU General Public License
(GPLv2), which is the license covering the kernel distribution as a whole.
In practice, that means that all code contributions are covered either by
GPLv2 (with, optionally, language allowing distribution under later
versions of the GPL) or the three-clause BSD license. Any contributions
which are not covered by a compatible license will not be accepted into the
kernel.
Copyright assignments are not required (or requested) for code contributed
to the kernel. All code merged into the mainline kernel retains its
original ownership; as a result, the kernel now has thousands of owners.
One implication of this ownership structure is that any attempt to change
the licensing of the kernel is doomed to almost certain failure. There are
few practical scenarios where the agreement of all copyright holders could
be obtained (or their code removed from the kernel). So, in particular,
there is no prospect of a migration to version 3 of the GPL in the
foreseeable future.
It is imperative that all code contributed to the kernel be legitimately
free software. For that reason, code from anonymous (or pseudonymous)
contributors will not be accepted. All contributors are required to "sign
off" on their code, stating that the code can be distributed with the
kernel under the GPL. Code which has not been licensed as free software by
its owner, or which risks creating copyright-related problems for the
kernel (such as code which derives from reverse-engineering efforts lacking
proper safeguards) cannot be contributed.
Questions about copyright-related issues are common on Linux development
mailing lists. Such questions will normally receive no shortage of
answers, but one should bear in mind that the people answering those
questions are not lawyers and cannot provide legal advice. If you have
legal questions relating to Linux source code, there is no substitute for
talking with a lawyer who understands this field. Relying on answers
obtained on technical mailing lists is a risky affair.
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2: HOW THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS WORKS
Linux kernel development in the early 1990's was a pretty loose affair,
with relatively small numbers of users and developers involved. With a
user base in the millions and with some 2,000 developers involved over the
course of one year, the kernel has since had to evolve a number of
processes to keep development happening smoothly. A solid understanding of
how the process works is required in order to be an effective part of it.
2.1: THE BIG PICTURE
The kernel developers use a loosely time-based release process, with a new
major kernel release happening every two or three months. The recent
release history looks like this:
2.6.26 July 13, 2008
2.6.25 April 16, 2008
2.6.24 January 24, 2008
2.6.23 October 9, 2007
2.6.22 July 8, 2007
2.6.21 April 25, 2007
2.6.20 February 4, 2007
Every 2.6.x release is a major kernel release with new features, internal
API changes, and more. A typical 2.6 release can contain over 10,000
changesets with changes to several hundred thousand lines of code. 2.6 is
thus the leading edge of Linux kernel development; the kernel uses a
rolling development model which is continually integrating major changes.
A relatively straightforward discipline is followed with regard to the
merging of patches for each release. At the beginning of each development
cycle, the "merge window" is said to be open. At that time, code which is
deemed to be sufficiently stable (and which is accepted by the development
community) is merged into the mainline kernel. The bulk of changes for a
new development cycle (and all of the major changes) will be merged during
this time, at a rate approaching 1,000 changes ("patches," or "changesets")
per day.
(As an aside, it is worth noting that the changes integrated during the
merge window do not come out of thin air; they have been collected, tested,
and staged ahead of time. How that process works will be described in
detail later on).
The merge window lasts for two weeks. At the end of this time, Linus
Torvalds will declare that the window is closed and release the first of
the "rc" kernels. For the kernel which is destined to be 2.6.26, for
example, the release which happens at the end of the merge window will be
called 2.6.26-rc1. The -rc1 release is the signal that the time to merge
new features has passed, and that the time to stabilize the next kernel has
begun.
Over the next six to ten weeks, only patches which fix problems should be
submitted to the mainline. On occasion a more significant change will be
allowed, but such occasions are rare; developers who try to merge new
features outside of the merge window tend to get an unfriendly reception.
As a general rule, if you miss the merge window for a given feature, the
best thing to do is to wait for the next development cycle. (An occasional
exception is made for drivers for previously-unsupported hardware; if they
touch no in-tree code, they cannot cause regressions and should be safe to
add at any time).
As fixes make their way into the mainline, the patch rate will slow over
time. Linus releases new -rc kernels about once a week; a normal series
will get up to somewhere between -rc6 and -rc9 before the kernel is
considered to be sufficiently stable and the final 2.6.x release is made.
At that point the whole process starts over again.
As an example, here is how the 2.6.25 development cycle went (all dates in
2008):
January 24 2.6.24 stable release
February 10 2.6.25-rc1, merge window closes
February 15 2.6.25-rc2
February 24 2.6.25-rc3
March 4 2.6.25-rc4
March 9 2.6.25-rc5
March 16 2.6.25-rc6
March 25 2.6.25-rc7
April 1 2.6.25-rc8
April 11 2.6.25-rc9
April 16 2.6.25 stable release
How do the developers decide when to close the development cycle and create
the stable release? The most significant metric used is the list of
regressions from previous releases. No bugs are welcome, but those which
break systems which worked in the past are considered to be especially
serious. For this reason, patches which cause regressions are looked upon
unfavorably and are quite likely to be reverted during the stabilization
period.
The developers' goal is to fix all known regressions before the stable
release is made. In the real world, this kind of perfection is hard to
achieve; there are just too many variables in a project of this size.
There comes a point where delaying the final release just makes the problem
worse; the pile of changes waiting for the next merge window will grow
larger, creating even more regressions the next time around. So most 2.6.x
kernels go out with a handful of known regressions though, hopefully, none
of them are serious.
Once a stable release is made, its ongoing maintenance is passed off to the
"stable team," currently comprised of Greg Kroah-Hartman and Chris Wright.
The stable team will release occasional updates to the stable release using
the 2.6.x.y numbering scheme. To be considered for an update release, a
patch must (1) fix a significant bug, and (2) already be merged into the
mainline for the next development kernel. Continuing our 2.6.25 example,
the history (as of this writing) is:
May 1 2.6.25.1
May 6 2.6.25.2
May 9 2.6.25.3
May 15 2.6.25.4
June 7 2.6.25.5
June 9 2.6.25.6
June 16 2.6.25.7
June 21 2.6.25.8
June 24 2.6.25.9
Stable updates for a given kernel are made for approximately six months;
after that, the maintenance of stable releases is solely the responsibility
of the distributors which have shipped that particular kernel.
2.2: THE LIFECYCLE OF A PATCH
Patches do not go directly from the developer's keyboard into the mainline
kernel. There is, instead, a somewhat involved (if somewhat informal)
process designed to ensure that each patch is reviewed for quality and that
each patch implements a change which is desirable to have in the mainline.
This process can happen quickly for minor fixes, or, in the case of large
and controversial changes, go on for years. Much developer frustration
comes from a lack of understanding of this process or from attempts to
circumvent it.
In the hopes of reducing that frustration, this document will describe how
a patch gets into the kernel. What follows below is an introduction which
describes the process in a somewhat idealized way. A much more detailed
treatment will come in later sections.
The stages that a patch goes through are, generally:
- Design. This is where the real requirements for the patch - and the way
those requirements will be met - are laid out. Design work is often
done without involving the community, but it is better to do this work
in the open if at all possible; it can save a lot of time redesigning
things later.
- Early review. Patches are posted to the relevant mailing list, and
developers on that list reply with any comments they may have. This
process should turn up any major problems with a patch if all goes
well.
- Wider review. When the patch is getting close to ready for mainline
inclusion, it will be accepted by a relevant subsystem maintainer -
though this acceptance is not a guarantee that the patch will make it
all the way to the mainline. The patch will show up in the maintainer's
subsystem tree and into the staging trees (described below). When the
process works, this step leads to more extensive review of the patch and
the discovery of any problems resulting from the integration of this
patch with work being done by others.
- Merging into the mainline. Eventually, a successful patch will be
merged into the mainline repository managed by Linus Torvalds. More
comments and/or problems may surface at this time; it is important that
the developer be responsive to these and fix any issues which arise.
- Stable release. The number of users potentially affected by the patch
is now large, so, once again, new problems may arise.
- Long-term maintenance. While it is certainly possible for a developer
to forget about code after merging it, that sort of behavior tends to
leave a poor impression in the development community. Merging code
eliminates some of the maintenance burden, in that others will fix
problems caused by API changes. But the original developer should
continue to take responsibility for the code if it is to remain useful
in the longer term.
One of the largest mistakes made by kernel developers (or their employers)
is to try to cut the process down to a single "merging into the mainline"
step. This approach invariably leads to frustration for everybody
involved.
2.3: HOW PATCHES GET INTO THE KERNEL
There is exactly one person who can merge patches into the mainline kernel
repository: Linus Torvalds. But, of the over 12,000 patches which went
into the 2.6.25 kernel, only 250 (around 2%) were directly chosen by Linus
himself. The kernel project has long since grown to a size where no single
developer could possibly inspect and select every patch unassisted. The
way the kernel developers have addressed this growth is through the use of
a lieutenant system built around a chain of trust.
The kernel code base is logically broken down into a set of subsystems:
networking, specific architecture support, memory management, video
devices, etc. Most subsystems have a designated maintainer, a developer
who has overall responsibility for the code within that subsystem. These
subsystem maintainers are the gatekeepers (in a loose way) for the portion
of the kernel they manage; they are the ones who will (usually) accept a
patch for inclusion into the mainline kernel.
Subsystem maintainers each manage their own version of the kernel source
tree, usually (but certainly not always) using the git source management
tool. Tools like git (and related tools like quilt or mercurial) allow
maintainers to track a list of patches, including authorship information
and other metadata. At any given time, the maintainer can identify which
patches in his or her repository are not found in the mainline.
When the merge window opens, top-level maintainers will ask Linus to "pull"
the patches they have selected for merging from their repositories. If
Linus agrees, the stream of patches will flow up into his repository,
becoming part of the mainline kernel. The amount of attention that Linus
pays to specific patches received in a pull operation varies. It is clear
that, sometimes, he looks quite closely. But, as a general rule, Linus
trusts the subsystem maintainers to not send bad patches upstream.
Subsystem maintainers, in turn, can pull patches from other maintainers.
For example, the networking tree is built from patches which accumulated
first in trees dedicated to network device drivers, wireless networking,
etc. This chain of repositories can be arbitrarily long, though it rarely
exceeds two or three links. Since each maintainer in the chain trusts
those managing lower-level trees, this process is known as the "chain of
trust."
Clearly, in a system like this, getting patches into the kernel depends on
finding the right maintainer. Sending patches directly to Linus is not
normally the right way to go.
2.4: STAGING TREES
The chain of subsystem trees guides the flow of patches into the kernel,
but it also raises an interesting question: what if somebody wants to look
at all of the patches which are being prepared for the next merge window?
Developers will be interested in what other changes are pending to see
whether there are any conflicts to worry about; a patch which changes a
core kernel function prototype, for example, will conflict with any other
patches which use the older form of that function. Reviewers and testers
want access to the changes in their integrated form before all of those
changes land in the mainline kernel. One could pull changes from all of
the interesting subsystem trees, but that would be a big and error-prone
job.
The answer comes in the form of staging trees, where subsystem trees are
collected for testing and review. The older of these trees, maintained by
Andrew Morton, is called "-mm" (for memory management, which is how it got
started). The -mm tree integrates patches from a long list of subsystem
trees; it also has some patches aimed at helping with debugging.
Beyond that, -mm contains a significant collection of patches which have
been selected by Andrew directly. These patches may have been posted on a
mailing list, or they may apply to a part of the kernel for which there is
no designated subsystem tree. As a result, -mm operates as a sort of
subsystem tree of last resort; if there is no other obvious path for a
patch into the mainline, it is likely to end up in -mm. Miscellaneous
patches which accumulate in -mm will eventually either be forwarded on to
an appropriate subsystem tree or be sent directly to Linus. In a typical
development cycle, approximately 10% of the patches going into the mainline
get there via -mm.
The current -mm patch can always be found from the front page of
http://kernel.org/
Those who want to see the current state of -mm can get the "-mm of the
moment" tree, found at:
http://userweb.kernel.org/~akpm/mmotm/
Use of the MMOTM tree is likely to be a frustrating experience, though;
there is a definite chance that it will not even compile.
The other staging tree, started more recently, is linux-next, maintained by
Stephen Rothwell. The linux-next tree is, by design, a snapshot of what
the mainline is expected to look like after the next merge window closes.
Linux-next trees are announced on the linux-kernel and linux-next mailing
lists when they are assembled; they can be downloaded from:
http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/people/sfr/linux-next/
Some information about linux-next has been gathered at:
http://linux.f-seidel.de/linux-next/pmwiki/
How the linux-next tree will fit into the development process is still
changing. As of this writing, the first full development cycle involving
linux-next (2.6.26) is coming to an end; thus far, it has proved to be a
valuable resource for finding and fixing integration problems before the
beginning of the merge window. See http://lwn.net/Articles/287155/ for
more information on how linux-next has worked to set up the 2.6.27 merge
window.
Some developers have begun to suggest that linux-next should be used as the
target for future development as well. The linux-next tree does tend to be
far ahead of the mainline and is more representative of the tree into which
any new work will be merged. The downside to this idea is that the
volatility of linux-next tends to make it a difficult development target.
See http://lwn.net/Articles/289013/ for more information on this topic, and
stay tuned; much is still in flux where linux-next is involved.
2.5: TOOLS
As can be seen from the above text, the kernel development process depends
heavily on the ability to herd collections of patches in various
directions. The whole thing would not work anywhere near as well as it
does without suitably powerful tools. Tutorials on how to use these tools
are well beyond the scope of this document, but there is space for a few
pointers.
By far the dominant source code management system used by the kernel
community is git. Git is one of a number of distributed version control
systems being developed in the free software community. It is well tuned
for kernel development, in that it performs quite well when dealing with
large repositories and large numbers of patches. It also has a reputation
for being difficult to learn and use, though it has gotten better over
time. Some sort of familiarity with git is almost a requirement for kernel
developers; even if they do not use it for their own work, they'll need git
to keep up with what other developers (and the mainline) are doing.
Git is now packaged by almost all Linux distributions. There is a home
page at
http://git.or.cz/
That page has pointers to documentation and tutorials. One should be
aware, in particular, of the Kernel Hacker's Guide to git, which has
information specific to kernel development:
http://linux.yyz.us/git-howto.html
Among the kernel developers who do not use git, the most popular choice is
almost certainly Mercurial:
http://www.selenic.com/mercurial/
Mercurial shares many features with git, but it provides an interface which
many find easier to use.
The other tool worth knowing about is Quilt:
http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/quilt/
Quilt is a patch management system, rather than a source code management
system. It does not track history over time; it is, instead, oriented
toward tracking a specific set of changes against an evolving code base.
Some major subsystem maintainers use quilt to manage patches intended to go
upstream. For the management of certain kinds of trees (-mm, for example),
quilt is the best tool for the job.
2.6: MAILING LISTS
A great deal of Linux kernel development work is done by way of mailing
lists. It is hard to be a fully-functioning member of the community
without joining at least one list somewhere. But Linux mailing lists also
represent a potential hazard to developers, who risk getting buried under a
load of electronic mail, running afoul of the conventions used on the Linux
lists, or both.
Most kernel mailing lists are run on vger.kernel.org; the master list can
be found at:
http://vger.kernel.org/vger-lists.html
There are lists hosted elsewhere, though; a number of them are at
lists.redhat.com.
The core mailing list for kernel development is, of course, linux-kernel.
This list is an intimidating place to be; volume can reach 500 messages per
day, the amount of noise is high, the conversation can be severely
technical, and participants are not always concerned with showing a high
degree of politeness. But there is no other place where the kernel
development community comes together as a whole; developers who avoid this
list will miss important information.
There are a few hints which can help with linux-kernel survival:
- Have the list delivered to a separate folder, rather than your main
mailbox. One must be able to ignore the stream for sustained periods of
time.
- Do not try to follow every conversation - nobody else does. It is
important to filter on both the topic of interest (though note that
long-running conversations can drift away from the original subject
without changing the email subject line) and the people who are
participating.
- Do not feed the trolls. If somebody is trying to stir up an angry
response, ignore them.
- When responding to linux-kernel email (or that on other lists) preserve
the Cc: header for all involved. In the absence of a strong reason (such
as an explicit request), you should never remove recipients. Always make
sure that the person you are responding to is in the Cc: list. This
convention also makes it unnecessary to explicitly ask to be copied on
replies to your postings.
- Search the list archives (and the net as a whole) before asking
questions. Some developers can get impatient with people who clearly
have not done their homework.
- Avoid top-posting (the practice of putting your answer above the quoted
text you are responding to). It makes your response harder to read and
makes a poor impression.
- Ask on the correct mailing list. Linux-kernel may be the general meeting
point, but it is not the best place to find developers from all
subsystems.
The last point - finding the correct mailing list - is a common place for
beginning developers to go wrong. Somebody who asks a networking-related
question on linux-kernel will almost certainly receive a polite suggestion
to ask on the netdev list instead, as that is the list frequented by most
networking developers. Other lists exist for the SCSI, video4linux, IDE,
filesystem, etc. subsystems. The best place to look for mailing lists is
in the MAINTAINERS file packaged with the kernel source.
2.7: GETTING STARTED WITH KERNEL DEVELOPMENT
Questions about how to get started with the kernel development process are
common - from both individuals and companies. Equally common are missteps
which make the beginning of the relationship harder than it has to be.
Companies often look to hire well-known developers to get a development
group started. This can, in fact, be an effective technique. But it also
tends to be expensive and does not do much to grow the pool of experienced
kernel developers. It is possible to bring in-house developers up to speed
on Linux kernel development, given the investment of a bit of time. Taking
this time can endow an employer with a group of developers who understand
the kernel and the company both, and who can help to train others as well.
Over the medium term, this is often the more profitable approach.
Individual developers are often, understandably, at a loss for a place to
start. Beginning with a large project can be intimidating; one often wants
to test the waters with something smaller first. This is the point where
some developers jump into the creation of patches fixing spelling errors or
minor coding style issues. Unfortunately, such patches create a level of
noise which is distracting for the development community as a whole, so,
increasingly, they are looked down upon. New developers wishing to
introduce themselves to the community will not get the sort of reception
they wish for by these means.
Andrew Morton gives this advice for aspiring kernel developers
The #1 project for all kernel beginners should surely be "make sure
that the kernel runs perfectly at all times on all machines which
you can lay your hands on". Usually the way to do this is to work
with others on getting things fixed up (this can require
persistence!) but that's fine - it's a part of kernel development.
(http://lwn.net/Articles/283982/).
In the absence of obvious problems to fix, developers are advised to look
at the current lists of regressions and open bugs in general. There is
never any shortage of issues in need of fixing; by addressing these issues,
developers will gain experience with the process while, at the same time,
building respect with the rest of the development community.
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3: EARLY-STAGE PLANNING
When contemplating a Linux kernel development project, it can be tempting
to jump right in and start coding. As with any significant project,
though, much of the groundwork for success is best laid before the first
line of code is written. Some time spent in early planning and
communication can save far more time later on.
3.1: SPECIFYING THE PROBLEM
Like any engineering project, a successful kernel enhancement starts with a
clear description of the problem to be solved. In some cases, this step is
easy: when a driver is needed for a specific piece of hardware, for
example. In others, though, it is tempting to confuse the real problem
with the proposed solution, and that can lead to difficulties.
Consider an example: some years ago, developers working with Linux audio
sought a way to run applications without dropouts or other artifacts caused
by excessive latency in the system. The solution they arrived at was a
kernel module intended to hook into the Linux Security Module (LSM)
framework; this module could be configured to give specific applications
access to the realtime scheduler. This module was implemented and sent to
the linux-kernel mailing list, where it immediately ran into problems.
To the audio developers, this security module was sufficient to solve their
immediate problem. To the wider kernel community, though, it was seen as a
misuse of the LSM framework (which is not intended to confer privileges
onto processes which they would not otherwise have) and a risk to system
stability. Their preferred solutions involved realtime scheduling access
via the rlimit mechanism for the short term, and ongoing latency reduction
work in the long term.
The audio community, however, could not see past the particular solution
they had implemented; they were unwilling to accept alternatives. The
resulting disagreement left those developers feeling disillusioned with the
entire kernel development process; one of them went back to an audio list
and posted this:
There are a number of very good Linux kernel developers, but they
tend to get outshouted by a large crowd of arrogant fools. Trying
to communicate user requirements to these people is a waste of
time. They are much too "intelligent" to listen to lesser mortals.
(http://lwn.net/Articles/131776/).
The reality of the situation was different; the kernel developers were far
more concerned about system stability, long-term maintenance, and finding
the right solution to the problem than they were with a specific module.
The moral of the story is to focus on the problem - not a specific solution
- and to discuss it with the development community before investing in the
creation of a body of code.
So, when contemplating a kernel development project, one should obtain
answers to a short set of questions:
- What, exactly, is the problem which needs to be solved?
- Who are the users affected by this problem? Which use cases should the
solution address?
- How does the kernel fall short in addressing that problem now?
Only then does it make sense to start considering possible solutions.
3.2: EARLY DISCUSSION
When planning a kernel development project, it makes great sense to hold
discussions with the community before launching into implementation. Early
communication can save time and trouble in a number of ways:
- It may well be that the problem is addressed by the kernel in ways which
you have not understood. The Linux kernel is large and has a number of
features and capabilities which are not immediately obvious. Not all
kernel capabilities are documented as well as one might like, and it is
easy to miss things. Your author has seen the posting of a complete
driver which duplicated an existing driver that the new author had been
unaware of. Code which reinvents existing wheels is not only wasteful;
it will also not be accepted into the mainline kernel.
- There may be elements of the proposed solution which will not be
acceptable for mainline merging. It is better to find out about
problems like this before writing the code.
- It's entirely possible that other developers have thought about the
problem; they may have ideas for a better solution, and may be willing
to help in the creation of that solution.
Years of experience with the kernel development community have taught a
clear lesson: kernel code which is designed and developed behind closed
doors invariably has problems which are only revealed when the code is
released into the community. Sometimes these problems are severe,
requiring months or years of effort before the code can be brought up to
the kernel community's standards. Some examples include:
- The Devicescape network stack was designed and implemented for
single-processor systems. It could not be merged into the mainline
until it was made suitable for multiprocessor systems. Retrofitting
locking and such into code is a difficult task; as a result, the merging
of this code (now called mac80211) was delayed for over a year.
- The Reiser4 filesystem included a number of capabilities which, in the
core kernel developers' opinion, should have been implemented in the
virtual filesystem layer instead. It also included features which could
not easily be implemented without exposing the system to user-caused
deadlocks. The late revelation of these problems - and refusal to
address some of them - has caused Reiser4 to stay out of the mainline
kernel.
- The AppArmor security module made use of internal virtual filesystem
data structures in ways which were considered to be unsafe and
unreliable. This code has since been significantly reworked, but
remains outside of the mainline.
In each of these cases, a great deal of pain and extra work could have been
avoided with some early discussion with the kernel developers.
3.3: WHO DO YOU TALK TO?
When developers decide to take their plans public, the next question will
be: where do we start? The answer is to find the right mailing list(s) and
the right maintainer. For mailing lists, the best approach is to look in
the MAINTAINERS file for a relevant place to post. If there is a suitable
subsystem list, posting there is often preferable to posting on
linux-kernel; you are more likely to reach developers with expertise in the
relevant subsystem and the environment may be more supportive.
Finding maintainers can be a bit harder. Again, the MAINTAINERS file is
the place to start. That file tends to not always be up to date, though,
and not all subsystems are represented there. The person listed in the
MAINTAINERS file may, in fact, not be the person who is actually acting in
that role currently. So, when there is doubt about who to contact, a
useful trick is to use git (and "git log" in particular) to see who is
currently active within the subsystem of interest. Look at who is writing
patches, and who, if anybody, is attaching Signed-off-by lines to those
patches. Those are the people who will be best placed to help with a new
development project.
If all else fails, talking to Andrew Morton can be an effective way to
track down a maintainer for a specific piece of code.
3.4: WHEN TO POST?
If possible, posting your plans during the early stages can only be
helpful. Describe the problem being solved and any plans that have been
made on how the implementation will be done. Any information you can
provide can help the development community provide useful input on the
project.
One discouraging thing which can happen at this stage is not a hostile
reaction, but, instead, little or no reaction at all. The sad truth of the
matter is (1) kernel developers tend to be busy, (2) there is no shortage
of people with grand plans and little code (or even prospect of code) to
back them up, and (3) nobody is obligated to review or comment on ideas
posted by others. If a request-for-comments posting yields little in the
way of comments, do not assume that it means there is no interest in the
project. Unfortunately, you also cannot assume that there are no problems
with your idea. The best thing to do in this situation is to proceed,
keeping the community informed as you go.
3.5: GETTING OFFICIAL BUY-IN
If your work is being done in a corporate environment - as most Linux
kernel work is - you must, obviously, have permission from suitably
empowered managers before you can post your company's plans or code to a
public mailing list. The posting of code which has not been cleared for
release under a GPL-compatible license can be especially problematic; the
sooner that a company's management and legal staff can agree on the posting
of a kernel development project, the better off everybody involved will be.
Some readers may be thinking at this point that their kernel work is
intended to support a product which does not yet have an officially
acknowledged existence. Revealing their employer's plans on a public
mailing list may not be a viable option. In cases like this, it is worth
considering whether the secrecy is really necessary; there is often no real
need to keep development plans behind closed doors.
That said, there are also cases where a company legitimately cannot
disclose its plans early in the development process. Companies with
experienced kernel developers may choose to proceed in an open-loop manner
on the assumption that they will be able to avoid serious integration
problems later. For companies without that sort of in-house expertise, the
best option is often to hire an outside developer to review the plans under
a non-disclosure agreement. The Linux Foundation operates an NDA program
designed to help with this sort of situation; more information can be found
at:
http://www.linuxfoundation.org/en/NDA_program
This kind of review is often enough to avoid serious problems later on
without requiring public disclosure of the project.
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4: GETTING THE CODE RIGHT
While there is much to be said for a solid and community-oriented design
process, the proof of any kernel development project is in the resulting
code. It is the code which will be examined by other developers and merged
(or not) into the mainline tree. So it is the quality of this code which
will determine the ultimate success of the project.
This section will examine the coding process. We'll start with a look at a
number of ways in which kernel developers can go wrong. Then the focus
will shift toward doing things right and the tools which can help in that
quest.
4.1: PITFALLS
* Coding style
The kernel has long had a standard coding style, described in
Documentation/CodingStyle. For much of that time, the policies described
in that file were taken as being, at most, advisory. As a result, there is
a substantial amount of code in the kernel which does not meet the coding
style guidelines. The presence of that code leads to two independent
hazards for kernel developers.
The first of these is to believe that the kernel coding standards do not
matter and are not enforced. The truth of the matter is that adding new
code to the kernel is very difficult if that code is not coded according to
the standard; many developers will request that the code be reformatted
before they will even review it. A code base as large as the kernel
requires some uniformity of code to make it possible for developers to
quickly understand any part of it. So there is no longer room for
strangely-formatted code.
Occasionally, the kernel's coding style will run into conflict with an
employer's mandated style. In such cases, the kernel's style will have to
win before the code can be merged. Putting code into the kernel means
giving up a degree of control in a number of ways - including control over
how the code is formatted.
The other trap is to assume that code which is already in the kernel is
urgently in need of coding style fixes. Developers may start to generate
reformatting patches as a way of gaining familiarity with the process, or
as a way of getting their name into the kernel changelogs - or both. But
pure coding style fixes are seen as noise by the development community;
they tend to get a chilly reception. So this type of patch is best
avoided. It is natural to fix the style of a piece of code while working
on it for other reasons, but coding style changes should not be made for
their own sake.
The coding style document also should not be read as an absolute law which
can never be transgressed. If there is a good reason to go against the
style (a line which becomes far less readable if split to fit within the
80-column limit, for example), just do it.
* Abstraction layers
Computer Science professors teach students to make extensive use of
abstraction layers in the name of flexibility and information hiding.
Certainly the kernel makes extensive use of abstraction; no project
involving several million lines of code could do otherwise and survive.
But experience has shown that excessive or premature abstraction can be
just as harmful as premature optimization. Abstraction should be used to
the level required and no further.
At a simple level, consider a function which has an argument which is
always passed as zero by all callers. One could retain that argument just
in case somebody eventually needs to use the extra flexibility that it
provides. By that time, though, chances are good that the code which
implements this extra argument has been broken in some subtle way which was
never noticed - because it has never been used. Or, when the need for
extra flexibility arises, it does not do so in a way which matches the
programmer's early expectation. Kernel developers will routinely submit
patches to remove unused arguments; they should, in general, not be added
in the first place.
Abstraction layers which hide access to hardware - often to allow the bulk
of a driver to be used with multiple operating systems - are especially
frowned upon. Such layers obscure the code and may impose a performance
penalty; they do not belong in the Linux kernel.
On the other hand, if you find yourself copying significant amounts of code
from another kernel subsystem, it is time to ask whether it would, in fact,
make sense to pull out some of that code into a separate library or to
implement that functionality at a higher level. There is no value in
replicating the same code throughout the kernel.
* #ifdef and preprocessor use in general
The C preprocessor seems to present a powerful temptation to some C
programmers, who see it as a way to efficiently encode a great deal of
flexibility into a source file. But the preprocessor is not C, and heavy
use of it results in code which is much harder for others to read and
harder for the compiler to check for correctness. Heavy preprocessor use
is almost always a sign of code which needs some cleanup work.
Conditional compilation with #ifdef is, indeed, a powerful feature, and it
is used within the kernel. But there is little desire to see code which is
sprinkled liberally with #ifdef blocks. As a general rule, #ifdef use
should be confined to header files whenever possible.
Conditionally-compiled code can be confined to functions which, if the code
is not to be present, simply become empty. The compiler will then quietly
optimize out the call to the empty function. The result is far cleaner
code which is easier to follow.
C preprocessor macros present a number of hazards, including possible
multiple evaluation of expressions with side effects and no type safety.
If you are tempted to define a macro, consider creating an inline function
instead. The code which results will be the same, but inline functions are
easier to read, do not evaluate their arguments multiple times, and allow
the compiler to perform type checking on the arguments and return value.
* Inline functions
Inline functions present a hazard of their own, though. Programmers can
become enamored of the perceived efficiency inherent in avoiding a function
call and fill a source file with inline functions. Those functions,
however, can actually reduce performance. Since their code is replicated
at each call site, they end up bloating the size of the compiled kernel.
That, in turn, creates pressure on the processor's memory caches, which can
slow execution dramatically. Inline functions, as a rule, should be quite
small and relatively rare. The cost of a function call, after all, is not
that high; the creation of large numbers of inline functions is a classic
example of premature optimization.
In general, kernel programmers ignore cache effects at their peril. The
classic time/space tradeoff taught in beginning data structures classes
often does not apply to contemporary hardware. Space *is* time, in that a
larger program will run slower than one which is more compact.
* Locking
In May, 2006, the "Devicescape" networking stack was, with great
fanfare, released under the GPL and made available for inclusion in the
mainline kernel. This donation was welcome news; support for wireless
networking in Linux was considered substandard at best, and the Devicescape
stack offered the promise of fixing that situation. Yet, this code did not
actually make it into the mainline until June, 2007 (2.6.22). What
happened?
This code showed a number of signs of having been developed behind
corporate doors. But one large problem in particular was that it was not
designed to work on multiprocessor systems. Before this networking stack
(now called mac80211) could be merged, a locking scheme needed to be
retrofitted onto it.
Once upon a time, Linux kernel code could be developed without thinking
about the concurrency issues presented by multiprocessor systems. Now,
however, this document is being written on a dual-core laptop. Even on
single-processor systems, work being done to improve responsiveness will
raise the level of concurrency within the kernel. The days when kernel
code could be written without thinking about locking are long past.
Any resource (data structures, hardware registers, etc.) which could be
accessed concurrently by more than one thread must be protected by a lock.
New code should be written with this requirement in mind; retrofitting
locking after the fact is a rather more difficult task. Kernel developers
should take the time to understand the available locking primitives well
enough to pick the right tool for the job. Code which shows a lack of
attention to concurrency will have a difficult path into the mainline.
* Regressions
One final hazard worth mentioning is this: it can be tempting to make a
change (which may bring big improvements) which causes something to break
for existing users. This kind of change is called a "regression," and
regressions have become most unwelcome in the mainline kernel. With few
exceptions, changes which cause regressions will be backed out if the
regression cannot be fixed in a timely manner. Far better to avoid the
regression in the first place.
It is often argued that a regression can be justified if it causes things
to work for more people than it creates problems for. Why not make a
change if it brings new functionality to ten systems for each one it
breaks? The best answer to this question was expressed by Linus in July,
2007:
So we don't fix bugs by introducing new problems. That way lies
madness, and nobody ever knows if you actually make any real
progress at all. Is it two steps forwards, one step back, or one
step forward and two steps back?
(http://lwn.net/Articles/243460/).
An especially unwelcome type of regression is any sort of change to the
user-space ABI. Once an interface has been exported to user space, it must
be supported indefinitely. This fact makes the creation of user-space
interfaces particularly challenging: since they cannot be changed in
incompatible ways, they must be done right the first time. For this
reason, a great deal of thought, clear documentation, and wide review for
user-space interfaces is always required.
4.2: CODE CHECKING TOOLS
For now, at least, the writing of error-free code remains an ideal that few
of us can reach. What we can hope to do, though, is to catch and fix as
many of those errors as possible before our code goes into the mainline
kernel. To that end, the kernel developers have put together an impressive
array of tools which can catch a wide variety of obscure problems in an
automated way. Any problem caught by the computer is a problem which will
not afflict a user later on, so it stands to reason that the automated
tools should be used whenever possible.
The first step is simply to heed the warnings produced by the compiler.
Contemporary versions of gcc can detect (and warn about) a large number of
potential errors. Quite often, these warnings point to real problems.
Code submitted for review should, as a rule, not produce any compiler
warnings. When silencing warnings, take care to understand the real cause
and try to avoid "fixes" which make the warning go away without addressing
its cause.
Note that not all compiler warnings are enabled by default. Build the
kernel with "make EXTRA_CFLAGS=-W" to get the full set.
The kernel provides several configuration options which turn on debugging
features; most of these are found in the "kernel hacking" submenu. Several
of these options should be turned on for any kernel used for development or
testing purposes. In particular, you should turn on:
- ENABLE_WARN_DEPRECATED, ENABLE_MUST_CHECK, and FRAME_WARN to get an
extra set of warnings for problems like the use of deprecated interfaces
or ignoring an important return value from a function. The output
generated by these warnings can be verbose, but one need not worry about
warnings from other parts of the kernel.
- DEBUG_OBJECTS will add code to track the lifetime of various objects
created by the kernel and warn when things are done out of order. If
you are adding a subsystem which creates (and exports) complex objects
of its own, consider adding support for the object debugging
infrastructure.
- DEBUG_SLAB can find a variety of memory allocation and use errors; it
should be used on most development kernels.
- DEBUG_SPINLOCK, DEBUG_SPINLOCK_SLEEP, and DEBUG_MUTEXES will find a
number of common locking errors.
There are quite a few other debugging options, some of which will be
discussed below. Some of them have a significant performance impact and
should not be used all of the time. But some time spent learning the
available options will likely be paid back many times over in short order.
One of the heavier debugging tools is the locking checker, or "lockdep."
This tool will track the acquisition and release of every lock (spinlock or
mutex) in the system, the order in which locks are acquired relative to
each other, the current interrupt environment, and more. It can then
ensure that locks are always acquired in the same order, that the same
interrupt assumptions apply in all situations, and so on. In other words,
lockdep can find a number of scenarios in which the system could, on rare
occasion, deadlock. This kind of problem can be painful (for both
developers and users) in a deployed system; lockdep allows them to be found
in an automated manner ahead of time. Code with any sort of non-trivial
locking should be run with lockdep enabled before being submitted for
inclusion.
As a diligent kernel programmer, you will, beyond doubt, check the return
status of any operation (such as a memory allocation) which can fail. The
fact of the matter, though, is that the resulting failure recovery paths
are, probably, completely untested. Untested code tends to be broken code;
you could be much more confident of your code if all those error-handling
paths had been exercised a few times.
The kernel provides a fault injection framework which can do exactly that,
especially where memory allocations are involved. With fault injection
enabled, a configurable percentage of memory allocations will be made to
fail; these failures can be restricted to a specific range of code.
Running with fault injection enabled allows the programmer to see how the
code responds when things go badly. See
Documentation/fault-injection/fault-injection.text for more information on
how to use this facility.
Other kinds of errors can be found with the "sparse" static analysis tool.
With sparse, the programmer can be warned about confusion between
user-space and kernel-space addresses, mixture of big-endian and
small-endian quantities, the passing of integer values where a set of bit
flags is expected, and so on. Sparse must be installed separately (it can
be found at http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/devel/sparse/ if your
distributor does not package it); it can then be run on the code by adding
"C=1" to your make command.
Other kinds of portability errors are best found by compiling your code for
other architectures. If you do not happen to have an S/390 system or a
Blackfin development board handy, you can still perform the compilation
step. A large set of cross compilers for x86 systems can be found at
http://www.kernel.org/pub/tools/crosstool/
Some time spent installing and using these compilers will help avoid
embarrassment later.
4.3: DOCUMENTATION
Documentation has often been more the exception than the rule with kernel
development. Even so, adequate documentation will help to ease the merging
of new code into the kernel, make life easier for other developers, and
will be helpful for your users. In many cases, the addition of
documentation has become essentially mandatory.
The first piece of documentation for any patch is its associated
changelog. Log entries should describe the problem being solved, the form
of the solution, the people who worked on the patch, any relevant
effects on performance, and anything else that might be needed to
understand the patch.
Any code which adds a new user-space interface - including new sysfs or
/proc files - should include documentation of that interface which enables
user-space developers to know what they are working with. See
Documentation/ABI/README for a description of how this documentation should
be formatted and what information needs to be provided.
The file Documentation/kernel-parameters.txt describes all of the kernel's
boot-time parameters. Any patch which adds new parameters should add the
appropriate entries to this file.
Any new configuration options must be accompanied by help text which
clearly explains the options and when the user might want to select them.
Internal API information for many subsystems is documented by way of
specially-formatted comments; these comments can be extracted and formatted
in a number of ways by the "kernel-doc" script. If you are working within
a subsystem which has kerneldoc comments, you should maintain them and add
them, as appropriate, for externally-available functions. Even in areas
which have not been so documented, there is no harm in adding kerneldoc
comments for the future; indeed, this can be a useful activity for
beginning kernel developers. The format of these comments, along with some
information on how to create kerneldoc templates can be found in the file
Documentation/kernel-doc-nano-HOWTO.txt.
Anybody who reads through a significant amount of existing kernel code will
note that, often, comments are most notable by their absence. Once again,
the expectations for new code are higher than they were in the past;
merging uncommented code will be harder. That said, there is little desire
for verbosely-commented code. The code should, itself, be readable, with
comments explaining the more subtle aspects.
Certain things should always be commented. Uses of memory barriers should
be accompanied by a line explaining why the barrier is necessary. The
locking rules for data structures generally need to be explained somewhere.
Major data structures need comprehensive documentation in general.
Non-obvious dependencies between separate bits of code should be pointed
out. Anything which might tempt a code janitor to make an incorrect
"cleanup" needs a comment saying why it is done the way it is. And so on.
4.4: INTERNAL API CHANGES
The binary interface provided by the kernel to user space cannot be broken
except under the most severe circumstances. The kernel's internal
programming interfaces, instead, are highly fluid and can be changed when
the need arises. If you find yourself having to work around a kernel API,
or simply not using a specific functionality because it does not meet your
needs, that may be a sign that the API needs to change. As a kernel
developer, you are empowered to make such changes.
There are, of course, some catches. API changes can be made, but they need
to be well justified. So any patch making an internal API change should be
accompanied by a description of what the change is and why it is
necessary. This kind of change should also be broken out into a separate
patch, rather than buried within a larger patch.
The other catch is that a developer who changes an internal API is
generally charged with the task of fixing any code within the kernel tree
which is broken by the change. For a widely-used function, this duty can
lead to literally hundreds or thousands of changes - many of which are
likely to conflict with work being done by other developers. Needless to
say, this can be a large job, so it is best to be sure that the
justification is solid.
When making an incompatible API change, one should, whenever possible,
ensure that code which has not been updated is caught by the compiler.
This will help you to be sure that you have found all in-tree uses of that
interface. It will also alert developers of out-of-tree code that there is
a change that they need to respond to. Supporting out-of-tree code is not
something that kernel developers need to be worried about, but we also do
not have to make life harder for out-of-tree developers than it it needs to
be.
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5: POSTING PATCHES
Sooner or later, the time comes when your work is ready to be presented to
the community for review and, eventually, inclusion into the mainline
kernel. Unsurprisingly, the kernel development community has evolved a set
of conventions and procedures which are used in the posting of patches;
following them will make life much easier for everybody involved. This
document will attempt to cover these expectations in reasonable detail;
more information can also be found in the files SubmittingPatches,
SubmittingDrivers, and SubmitChecklist in the kernel documentation
directory.
5.1: WHEN TO POST
There is a constant temptation to avoid posting patches before they are
completely "ready." For simple patches, that is not a problem. If the
work being done is complex, though, there is a lot to be gained by getting
feedback from the community before the work is complete. So you should
consider posting in-progress work, or even making a git tree available so
that interested developers can catch up with your work at any time.
When posting code which is not yet considered ready for inclusion, it is a
good idea to say so in the posting itself. Also mention any major work
which remains to be done and any known problems. Fewer people will look at
patches which are known to be half-baked, but those who do will come in
with the idea that they can help you drive the work in the right direction.
5.2: BEFORE CREATING PATCHES
There are a number of things which should be done before you consider
sending patches to the development community. These include:
- Test the code to the extent that you can. Make use of the kernel's
debugging tools, ensure that the kernel will build with all reasonable
combinations of configuration options, use cross-compilers to build for
different architectures, etc.
- Make sure your code is compliant with the kernel coding style
guidelines.
- Does your change have performance implications? If so, you should run
benchmarks showing what the impact (or benefit) of your change is; a
summary of the results should be included with the patch.
- Be sure that you have the right to post the code. If this work was done
for an employer, the employer likely has a right to the work and must be
agreeable with its release under the GPL.
As a general rule, putting in some extra thought before posting code almost
always pays back the effort in short order.
5.3: PATCH PREPARATION
The preparation of patches for posting can be a surprising amount of work,
but, once again, attempting to save time here is not generally advisable
even in the short term.
Patches must be prepared against a specific version of the kernel. As a
general rule, a patch should be based on the current mainline as found in
Linus's git tree. It may become necessary to make versions against -mm,
linux-next, or a subsystem tree, though, to facilitate wider testing and
review. Depending on the area of your patch and what is going on
elsewhere, basing a patch against these other trees can require a
significant amount of work resolving conflicts and dealing with API
changes.
Only the most simple changes should be formatted as a single patch;
everything else should be made as a logical series of changes. Splitting
up patches is a bit of an art; some developers spend a long time figuring
out how to do it in the way that the community expects. There are a few
rules of thumb, however, which can help considerably:
- The patch series you post will almost certainly not be the series of
changes found in your working revision control system. Instead, the
changes you have made need to be considered in their final form, then
split apart in ways which make sense. The developers are interested in
discrete, self-contained changes, not the path you took to get to those
changes.
- Each logically independent change should be formatted as a separate
patch. These changes can be small ("add a field to this structure") or
large (adding a significant new driver, for example), but they should be
conceptually small and amenable to a one-line description. Each patch
should make a specific change which can be reviewed on its own and
verified to do what it says it does.
- As a way of restating the guideline above: do not mix different types of
changes in the same patch. If a single patch fixes a critical security
bug, rearranges a few structures, and reformats the code, there is a
good chance that it will be passed over and the important fix will be
lost.
- Each patch should yield a kernel which builds and runs properly; if your
patch series is interrupted in the middle, the result should still be a
working kernel. Partial application of a patch series is a common
scenario when the "git bisect" tool is used to find regressions; if the
result is a broken kernel, you will make life harder for developers and
users who are engaging in the noble work of tracking down problems.
- Do not overdo it, though. One developer recently posted a set of edits
to a single file as 500 separate patches - an act which did not make him
the most popular person on the kernel mailing list. A single patch can
be reasonably large as long as it still contains a single *logical*
change.
- It can be tempting to add a whole new infrastructure with a series of
patches, but to leave that infrastructure unused until the final patch
in the series enables the whole thing. This temptation should be
avoided if possible; if that series adds regressions, bisection will
finger the last patch as the one which caused the problem, even though
the real bug is elsewhere. Whenever possible, a patch which adds new
code should make that code active immediately.
Working to create the perfect patch series can be a frustrating process
which takes quite a bit of time and thought after the "real work" has been
done. When done properly, though, it is time well spent.
5.4: PATCH FORMATTING
So now you have a perfect series of patches for posting, but the work is
not done quite yet. Each patch needs to be formatted into a message which
quickly and clearly communicates its purpose to the rest of the world. To
that end, each patch will be composed of the following:
- An optional "From" line naming the author of the patch. This line is
only necessary if you are passing on somebody else's patch via email,
but it never hurts to add it when in doubt.
- A one-line description of what the patch does. This message should be
enough for a reader who sees it with no other context to figure out the
scope of the patch; it is the line that will show up in the "short form"
changelogs. This message is usually formatted with the relevant
subsystem name first, followed by the purpose of the patch. For
example:
gpio: fix build on CONFIG_GPIO_SYSFS=n
- A blank line followed by a detailed description of the contents of the
patch. This description can be as long as is required; it should say
what the patch does and why it should be applied to the kernel.
- One or more tag lines, with, at a minimum, one Signed-off-by: line from
the author of the patch. Tags will be described in more detail below.
The above three items should, normally, be the text used when committing
the change to a revision control system. They are followed by:
- The patch itself, in the unified ("-u") patch format. Using the "-p"
option to diff will associate function names with changes, making the
resulting patch easier for others to read.
You should avoid including changes to irrelevant files (those generated by
the build process, for example, or editor backup files) in the patch. The
file "dontdiff" in the Documentation directory can help in this regard;
pass it to diff with the "-X" option.
The tags mentioned above are used to describe how various developers have
been associated with the development of this patch. They are described in
detail in the SubmittingPatches document; what follows here is a brief
summary. Each of these lines has the format:
tag: Full Name <email address> optional-other-stuff
The tags in common use are:
- Signed-off-by: this is a developer's certification that he or she has
the right to submit the patch for inclusion into the kernel. It is an
agreement to the Developer's Certificate of Origin, the full text of
which can be found in Documentation/SubmittingPatches. Code without a
proper signoff cannot be merged into the mainline.
- Acked-by: indicates an agreement by another developer (often a
maintainer of the relevant code) that the patch is appropriate for
inclusion into the kernel.
- Tested-by: states that the named person has tested the patch and found
it to work.
- Reviewed-by: the named developer has reviewed the patch for correctness;
see the reviewer's statement in Documentation/SubmittingPatches for more
detail.
- Reported-by: names a user who reported a problem which is fixed by this
patch; this tag is used to give credit to the (often underappreciated)
people who test our code and let us know when things do not work
correctly.
- Cc: the named person received a copy of the patch and had the
opportunity to comment on it.
Be careful in the addition of tags to your patches: only Cc: is appropriate
for addition without the explicit permission of the person named.
5.5: SENDING THE PATCH
Before you mail your patches, there are a couple of other things you should
take care of:
- Are you sure that your mailer will not corrupt the patches? Patches
which have had gratuitous white-space changes or line wrapping performed
by the mail client will not apply at the other end, and often will not
be examined in any detail. If there is any doubt at all, mail the patch
to yourself and convince yourself that it shows up intact.
Documentation/email-clients.txt has some helpful hints on making
specific mail clients work for sending patches.
- Are you sure your patch is free of silly mistakes? You should always
run patches through scripts/checkpatch.pl and address the complaints it
comes up with. Please bear in mind that checkpatch.pl, while being the
embodiment of a fair amount of thought about what kernel patches should
look like, is not smarter than you. If fixing a checkpatch.pl complaint
would make the code worse, don't do it.
Patches should always be sent as plain text. Please do not send them as
attachments; that makes it much harder for reviewers to quote sections of
the patch in their replies. Instead, just put the patch directly into your
message.
When mailing patches, it is important to send copies to anybody who might
be interested in it. Unlike some other projects, the kernel encourages
people to err on the side of sending too many copies; don't assume that the
relevant people will see your posting on the mailing lists. In particular,
copies should go to:
- The maintainer(s) of the affected subsystem(s). As described earlier,
the MAINTAINERS file is the first place to look for these people.
- Other developers who have been working in the same area - especially
those who might be working there now. Using git to see who else has
modified the files you are working on can be helpful.
- If you are responding to a bug report or a feature request, copy the
original poster as well.
- Send a copy to the relevant mailing list, or, if nothing else applies,
the linux-kernel list.
- If you are fixing a bug, think about whether the fix should go into the
next stable update. If so, stable@kernel.org should get a copy of the
patch. Also add a "Cc: stable@kernel.org" to the tags within the patch
itself; that will cause the stable team to get a notification when your
fix goes into the mainline.
When selecting recipients for a patch, it is good to have an idea of who
you think will eventually accept the patch and get it merged. While it
is possible to send patches directly to Linus Torvalds and have him merge
them, things are not normally done that way. Linus is busy, and there are
subsystem maintainers who watch over specific parts of the kernel. Usually
you will be wanting that maintainer to merge your patches. If there is no
obvious maintainer, Andrew Morton is often the patch target of last resort.
Patches need good subject lines. The canonical format for a patch line is
something like:
[PATCH nn/mm] subsys: one-line description of the patch
where "nn" is the ordinal number of the patch, "mm" is the total number of
patches in the series, and "subsys" is the name of the affected subsystem.
Clearly, nn/mm can be omitted for a single, standalone patch.
If you have a significant series of patches, it is customary to send an
introductory description as part zero. This convention is not universally
followed though; if you use it, remember that information in the
introduction does not make it into the kernel changelogs. So please ensure
that the patches, themselves, have complete changelog information.
In general, the second and following parts of a multi-part patch should be
sent as a reply to the first part so that they all thread together at the
receiving end. Tools like git and quilt have commands to mail out a set of
patches with the proper threading. If you have a long series, though, and
are using git, please provide the --no-chain-reply-to option to avoid
creating exceptionally deep nesting.
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6: FOLLOWTHROUGH
At this point, you have followed the guidelines given so far and, with the
addition of your own engineering skills, have posted a perfect series of
patches. One of the biggest mistakes that even experienced kernel
developers can make is to conclude that their work is now done. In truth,
posting patches indicates a transition into the next stage of the process,
with, possibly, quite a bit of work yet to be done.
It is a rare patch which is so good at its first posting that there is no
room for improvement. The kernel development process recognizes this fact,
and, as a result, is heavily oriented toward the improvement of posted
code. You, as the author of that code, will be expected to work with the
kernel community to ensure that your code is up to the kernel's quality
standards. A failure to participate in this process is quite likely to
prevent the inclusion of your patches into the mainline.
6.1: WORKING WITH REVIEWERS
A patch of any significance will result in a number of comments from other
developers as they review the code. Working with reviewers can be, for
many developers, the most intimidating part of the kernel development
process. Life can be made much easier, though, if you keep a few things in
mind:
- If you have explained your patch well, reviewers will understand its
value and why you went to the trouble of writing it. But that value
will not keep them from asking a fundamental question: what will it be
like to maintain a kernel with this code in it five or ten years later?
Many of the changes you may be asked to make - from coding style tweaks
to substantial rewrites - come from the understanding that Linux will
still be around and under development a decade from now.
- Code review is hard work, and it is a relatively thankless occupation;
people remember who wrote kernel code, but there is little lasting fame
for those who reviewed it. So reviewers can get grumpy, especially when
they see the same mistakes being made over and over again. If you get a
review which seems angry, insulting, or outright offensive, resist the
impulse to respond in kind. Code review is about the code, not about
the people, and code reviewers are not attacking you personally.
- Similarly, code reviewers are not trying to promote their employers'
agendas at the expense of your own. Kernel developers often expect to
be working on the kernel years from now, but they understand that their
employer could change. They truly are, almost without exception,
working toward the creation of the best kernel they can; they are not
trying to create discomfort for their employers' competitors.
What all of this comes down to is that, when reviewers send you comments,
you need to pay attention to the technical observations that they are
making. Do not let their form of expression or your own pride keep that
from happening. When you get review comments on a patch, take the time to
understand what the reviewer is trying to say. If possible, fix the things
that the reviewer is asking you to fix. And respond back to the reviewer:
thank them, and describe how you will answer their questions.
Note that you do not have to agree with every change suggested by
reviewers. If you believe that the reviewer has misunderstood your code,
explain what is really going on. If you have a technical objection to a
suggested change, describe it and justify your solution to the problem. If
your explanations make sense, the reviewer will accept them. Should your
explanation not prove persuasive, though, especially if others start to
agree with the reviewer, take some time to think things over again. It can
be easy to become blinded by your own solution to a problem to the point
that you don't realize that something is fundamentally wrong or, perhaps,
you're not even solving the right problem.
One fatal mistake is to ignore review comments in the hope that they will
go away. They will not go away. If you repost code without having
responded to the comments you got the time before, you're likely to find
that your patches go nowhere.
Speaking of reposting code: please bear in mind that reviewers are not
going to remember all the details of the code you posted the last time
around. So it is always a good idea to remind reviewers of previously
raised issues and how you dealt with them; the patch changelog is a good
place for this kind of information. Reviewers should not have to search
through list archives to familiarize themselves with what was said last
time; if you help them get a running start, they will be in a better mood
when they revisit your code.
What if you've tried to do everything right and things still aren't going
anywhere? Most technical disagreements can be resolved through discussion,
but there are times when somebody simply has to make a decision. If you
honestly believe that this decision is going against you wrongly, you can
always try appealing to a higher power. As of this writing, that higher
power tends to be Andrew Morton. Andrew has a great deal of respect in the
kernel development community; he can often unjam a situation which seems to
be hopelessly blocked. Appealing to Andrew should not be done lightly,
though, and not before all other alternatives have been explored. And bear
in mind, of course, that he may not agree with you either.
6.2: WHAT HAPPENS NEXT
If a patch is considered to be a good thing to add to the kernel, and once
most of the review issues have been resolved, the next step is usually
entry into a subsystem maintainer's tree. How that works varies from one
subsystem to the next; each maintainer has his or her own way of doing
things. In particular, there may be more than one tree - one, perhaps,
dedicated to patches planned for the next merge window, and another for
longer-term work.
For patches applying to areas for which there is no obvious subsystem tree
(memory management patches, for example), the default tree often ends up
being -mm. Patches which affect multiple subsystems can also end up going
through the -mm tree.
Inclusion into a subsystem tree can bring a higher level of visibility to a
patch. Now other developers working with that tree will get the patch by
default. Subsystem trees typically feed into -mm and linux-next as well,
making their contents visible to the development community as a whole. At
this point, there's a good chance that you will get more comments from a
new set of reviewers; these comments need to be answered as in the previous
round.
What may also happen at this point, depending on the nature of your patch,
is that conflicts with work being done by others turn up. In the worst
case, heavy patch conflicts can result in some work being put on the back
burner so that the remaining patches can be worked into shape and merged.
Other times, conflict resolution will involve working with the other
developers and, possibly, moving some patches between trees to ensure that
everything applies cleanly. This work can be a pain, but count your
blessings: before the advent of the linux-next tree, these conflicts often
only turned up during the merge window and had to be addressed in a hurry.
Now they can be resolved at leisure, before the merge window opens.
Some day, if all goes well, you'll log on and see that your patch has been
merged into the mainline kernel. Congratulations! Once the celebration is
complete (and you have added yourself to the MAINTAINERS file), though, it
is worth remembering an important little fact: the job still is not done.
Merging into the mainline brings its own challenges.
To begin with, the visibility of your patch has increased yet again. There
may be a new round of comments from developers who had not been aware of
the patch before. It may be tempting to ignore them, since there is no
longer any question of your code being merged. Resist that temptation,
though; you still need to be responsive to developers who have questions or
suggestions.
More importantly, though: inclusion into the mainline puts your code into
the hands of a much larger group of testers. Even if you have contributed
a driver for hardware which is not yet available, you will be surprised by
how many people will build your code into their kernels. And, of course,
where there are testers, there will be bug reports.
The worst sort of bug reports are regressions. If your patch causes a
regression, you'll find an uncomfortable number of eyes upon you;
regressions need to be fixed as soon as possible. If you are unwilling or
unable to fix the regression (and nobody else does it for you), your patch
will almost certainly be removed during the stabilization period. Beyond
negating all of the work you have done to get your patch into the mainline,
having a patch pulled as the result of a failure to fix a regression could
well make it harder for you to get work merged in the future.
After any regressions have been dealt with, there may be other, ordinary
bugs to deal with. The stabilization period is your best opportunity to
fix these bugs and ensure that your code's debut in a mainline kernel
release is as solid as possible. So, please, answer bug reports, and fix
the problems if at all possible. That's what the stabilization period is
for; you can start creating cool new patches once any problems with the old
ones have been taken care of.
And don't forget that there are other milestones which may also create bug
reports: the next mainline stable release, when prominent distributors pick
up a version of the kernel containing your patch, etc. Continuing to
respond to these reports is a matter of basic pride in your work. If that
is insufficient motivation, though, it's also worth considering that the
development community remembers developers who lose interest in their code
after it's merged. The next time you post a patch, they will be evaluating
it with the assumption that you will not be around to maintain it
afterward.
6.3: OTHER THINGS THAT CAN HAPPEN
One day, you may open your mail client and see that somebody has mailed you
a patch to your code. That is one of the advantages of having your code
out there in the open, after all. If you agree with the patch, you can
either forward it on to the subsystem maintainer (be sure to include a
proper From: line so that the attribution is correct, and add a signoff of
your own), or send an Acked-by: response back and let the original poster
send it upward.
If you disagree with the patch, send a polite response explaining why. If
possible, tell the author what changes need to be made to make the patch
acceptable to you. There is a certain resistance to merging patches which
are opposed by the author and maintainer of the code, but it only goes so
far. If you are seen as needlessly blocking good work, those patches will
eventually flow around you and get into the mainline anyway. In the Linux
kernel, nobody has absolute veto power over any code. Except maybe Linus.
On very rare occasion, you may see something completely different: another
developer posts a different solution to your problem. At that point,
chances are that one of the two patches will not be merged, and "mine was
here first" is not considered to be a compelling technical argument. If
somebody else's patch displaces yours and gets into the mainline, there is
really only one way to respond: be pleased that your problem got solved and
get on with your work. Having one's work shoved aside in this manner can
be hurtful and discouraging, but the community will remember your reaction
long after they have forgotten whose patch actually got merged.
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7: ADVANCED TOPICS
At this point, hopefully, you have a handle on how the development process
works. There is still more to learn, however! This section will cover a
number of topics which can be helpful for developers wanting to become a
regular part of the Linux kernel development process.
7.1: MANAGING PATCHES WITH GIT
The use of distributed version control for the kernel began in early 2002,
when Linus first started playing with the proprietary BitKeeper
application. While BitKeeper was controversial, the approach to software
version management it embodied most certainly was not. Distributed version
control enabled an immediate acceleration of the kernel development
project. In current times, there are several free alternatives to
BitKeeper. For better or for worse, the kernel project has settled on git
as its tool of choice.
Managing patches with git can make life much easier for the developer,
especially as the volume of those patches grows. Git also has its rough
edges and poses certain hazards; it is a young and powerful tool which is
still being civilized by its developers. This document will not attempt to
teach the reader how to use git; that would be sufficient material for a
long document in its own right. Instead, the focus here will be on how git
fits into the kernel development process in particular. Developers who
wish to come up to speed with git will find more information at:
http://git.or.cz/
http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/docs/user-manual.html
and on various tutorials found on the web.
The first order of business is to read the above sites and get a solid
understanding of how git works before trying to use it to make patches
available to others. A git-using developer should be able to obtain a copy
of the mainline repository, explore the revision history, commit changes to
the tree, use branches, etc. An understanding of git's tools for the
rewriting of history (such as rebase) is also useful. Git comes with its
own terminology and concepts; a new user of git should know about refs,
remote branches, the index, fast-forward merges, pushes and pulls, detached
heads, etc. It can all be a little intimidating at the outset, but the
concepts are not that hard to grasp with a bit of study.
Using git to generate patches for submission by email can be a good
exercise while coming up to speed.
When you are ready to start putting up git trees for others to look at, you
will, of course, need a server that can be pulled from. Setting up such a
server with git-daemon is relatively straightforward if you have a system
which is accessible to the Internet. Otherwise, free, public hosting sites
(Github, for example) are starting to appear on the net. Established
developers can get an account on kernel.org, but those are not easy to come
by; see http://kernel.org/faq/ for more information.
The normal git workflow involves the use of a lot of branches. Each line
of development can be separated into a separate "topic branch" and
maintained independently. Branches in git are cheap, there is no reason to
not make free use of them. And, in any case, you should not do your
development in any branch which you intend to ask others to pull from.
Publicly-available branches should be created with care; merge in patches
from development branches when they are in complete form and ready to go -
not before.
Git provides some powerful tools which can allow you to rewrite your
development history. An inconvenient patch (one which breaks bisection,
say, or which has some other sort of obvious bug) can be fixed in place or
made to disappear from the history entirely. A patch series can be
rewritten as if it had been written on top of today's mainline, even though
you have been working on it for months. Changes can be transparently
shifted from one branch to another. And so on. Judicious use of git's
ability to revise history can help in the creation of clean patch sets with
fewer problems.
Excessive use of this capability can lead to other problems, though, beyond
a simple obsession for the creation of the perfect project history.
Rewriting history will rewrite the changes contained in that history,
turning a tested (hopefully) kernel tree into an untested one. But, beyond
that, developers cannot easily collaborate if they do not have a shared
view of the project history; if you rewrite history which other developers
have pulled into their repositories, you will make life much more difficult
for those developers. So a simple rule of thumb applies here: history
which has been exported to others should generally be seen as immutable
thereafter.
So, once you push a set of changes to your publicly-available server, those
changes should not be rewritten. Git will attempt to enforce this rule if
you try to push changes which do not result in a fast-forward merge
(i.e. changes which do not share the same history). It is possible to
override this check, and there may be times when it is necessary to rewrite
an exported tree. Moving changesets between trees to avoid conflicts in
linux-next is one example. But such actions should be rare. This is one
of the reasons why development should be done in private branches (which
can be rewritten if necessary) and only moved into public branches when
it's in a reasonably advanced state.
As the mainline (or other tree upon which a set of changes is based)
advances, it is tempting to merge with that tree to stay on the leading
edge. For a private branch, rebasing can be an easy way to keep up with
another tree, but rebasing is not an option once a tree is exported to the
world. Once that happens, a full merge must be done. Merging occasionally
makes good sense, but overly frequent merges can clutter the history
needlessly. Suggested technique in this case is to merge infrequently, and
generally only at specific release points (such as a mainline -rc
release). If you are nervous about specific changes, you can always
perform test merges in a private branch. The git "rerere" tool can be
useful in such situations; it remembers how merge conflicts were resolved
so that you don't have to do the same work twice.
One of the biggest recurring complaints about tools like git is this: the
mass movement of patches from one repository to another makes it easy to
slip in ill-advised changes which go into the mainline below the review
radar. Kernel developers tend to get unhappy when they see that kind of
thing happening; putting up a git tree with unreviewed or off-topic patches
can affect your ability to get trees pulled in the future. Quoting Linus:
You can send me patches, but for me to pull a git patch from you, I
need to know that you know what you're doing, and I need to be able
to trust things *without* then having to go and check every
individual change by hand.
(http://lwn.net/Articles/224135/).
To avoid this kind of situation, ensure that all patches within a given
branch stick closely to the associated topic; a "driver fixes" branch
should not be making changes to the core memory management code. And, most
importantly, do not use a git tree to bypass the review process. Post an
occasional summary of the tree to the relevant list, and, when the time is
right, request that the tree be included in linux-next.
If and when others start to send patches for inclusion into your tree,
don't forget to review them. Also ensure that you maintain the correct
authorship information; the git "am" tool does its best in this regard, but
you may have to add a "From:" line to the patch if it has been relayed to
you via a third party.
When requesting a pull, be sure to give all the relevant information: where
your tree is, what branch to pull, and what changes will result from the
pull. The git request-pull command can be helpful in this regard; it will
format the request as other developers expect, and will also check to be
sure that you have remembered to push those changes to the public server.
7.2: REVIEWING PATCHES
Some readers will certainly object to putting this section with "advanced
topics" on the grounds that even beginning kernel developers should be
reviewing patches. It is certainly true that there is no better way to
learn how to program in the kernel environment than by looking at code
posted by others. In addition, reviewers are forever in short supply; by
looking at code you can make a significant contribution to the process as a
whole.
Reviewing code can be an intimidating prospect, especially for a new kernel
developer who may well feel nervous about questioning code - in public -
which has been posted by those with more experience. Even code written by
the most experienced developers can be improved, though. Perhaps the best
piece of advice for reviewers (all reviewers) is this: phrase review
comments as questions rather than criticisms. Asking "how does the lock
get released in this path?" will always work better than stating "the
locking here is wrong."
Different developers will review code from different points of view. Some
are mostly concerned with coding style and whether code lines have trailing
white space. Others will focus primarily on whether the change implemented
by the patch as a whole is a good thing for the kernel or not. Yet others
will check for problematic locking, excessive stack usage, possible
security issues, duplication of code found elsewhere, adequate
documentation, adverse effects on performance, user-space ABI changes, etc.
All types of review, if they lead to better code going into the kernel, are
welcome and worthwhile.
Documentation/development-process/8.Conclusion 0 → 100644
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8: FOR MORE INFORMATION
There are numerous sources of information on Linux kernel development and
related topics. First among those will always be the Documentation
directory found in the kernel source distribution. The top-level HOWTO
file is an important starting point; SubmittingPatches and
SubmittingDrivers are also something which all kernel developers should
read. Many internal kernel APIs are documented using the kerneldoc
mechanism; "make htmldocs" or "make pdfdocs" can be used to generate those
documents in HTML or PDF format (though the version of TeX shipped by some
distributions runs into internal limits and fails to process the documents
properly).
Various web sites discuss kernel development at all levels of detail. Your
author would like to humbly suggest http://lwn.net/ as a source;
information on many specific kernel topics can be found via the LWN kernel
index at:
http://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/
Beyond that, a valuable resource for kernel developers is:
http://kernelnewbies.org/
Information about the linux-next tree gathers at:
http://linux.f-seidel.de/linux-next/pmwiki/
And, of course, one should not forget http://kernel.org/, the definitive
location for kernel release information.
There are a number of books on kernel development:
Linux Device Drivers, 3rd Edition (Jonathan Corbet, Alessandro
Rubini, and Greg Kroah-Hartman). Online at
http://lwn.net/Kernel/LDD3/.
Linux Kernel Development (Robert Love).
Understanding the Linux Kernel (Daniel Bovet and Marco Cesati).
All of these books suffer from a common fault, though: they tend to be
somewhat obsolete by the time they hit the shelves, and they have been on
the shelves for a while now. Still, there is quite a bit of good
information to be found there.
Documentation for git can be found at:
http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/docs/
http://www.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/docs/user-manual.html
9: CONCLUSION
Congratulations to anybody who has made it through this long-winded
document. Hopefully it has provided a helpful understanding of how the
Linux kernel is developed and how you can participate in that process.
In the end, it's the participation that matters. Any open source software
project is no more than the sum of what its contributors put into it. The
Linux kernel has progressed as quickly and as well as it has because it has
been helped by an impressively large group of developers, all of whom are
working to make it better. The kernel is a premier example of what can be
done when thousands of people work together toward a common goal.
The kernel can always benefit from a larger developer base, though. There
is always more work to do. But, just as importantly, most other
participants in the Linux ecosystem can benefit through contributing to the
kernel. Getting code into the mainline is the key to higher code quality,
lower maintenance and distribution costs, a higher level of influence over
the direction of kernel development, and more. It is a situation where
everybody involved wins. Fire up your editor and come join us; you will be
more than welcome.
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